UCSB   LIBRARY 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


ARCHITECTURE 


BEGINNERS  AND  STUDENTS 


COMPLETE  INDEXES  AND  NUMEROUS 
ILLUSTRA  TIONS 


BY 

CLARA    ERSKINE    CLEMENT 

AUTHOR    OF     "  FAINTING    FOR    BEGINNERS   AND    STUDENTS,"    "SCULPTURE   FOR   BEGINNERS 

AMD   STUDENTS,"     "  HANDBOOK    OF    LEGENDARY   AND    MYTHOLOGICAL 

ART,"     ETC.,    ETC. 

FOURTH  EDITION 


NEW   YORK 

FREDERICK   A,    STOKES    COMPANY 
MDCCCXCIII 


COPYRIGHT,  1886, 
WHITE,  STOKES,  &  ALLEN. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PACK 

ANCIENT  OR  HEATHEN  ARCHITECTURE.    3000  B.C.  to  A.D.  328,  i 

EGYPT, 2 

ASSYRIA, 20 

BABYLON 29 

PERSIA, 34 

JUDEA, 44 

GREECE, 46 

ETRURIA, 71 

ROME, 74 


CHAPTER  II. 

CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.    A.D.  328  TO  ABOUT  1400,  .       .  87 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE,        . •  93 

BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE, 117 

SARACENIC  ARCHITECTURE 123 


CHAPTER  III. 

MODERN  ARCHITECTURE.    A.D.  1400  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME,  133 

ITALY,       . 134 

SPAIN-, 145 


Vl  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

FRANCE, 153 

ENGLAND 166 

GERMANY,        ..........  172 

THEATRES  AND  Music  HALLS,  ......  179 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 181 

GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 191 

INDEX, •       •  195 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  .....       Frontispiece 

The  Ascent  of  a  Pyramid,             .            .            .            .             .  -4 

View  of  Gallery  in  the  Great  Pyramid,              ....  5 

Poulterer's  Shop,     ........       6 

Rock-cut  Tomb  (Beni-Hassan),              .....  6 

The  Hall  of  Columns  at  Karnak,    .             .            .            .            .  .10 

Pillar  from  Thebes  (showing  the  Three  Parts),             .            .            .  II 

Sculptured  Capital,  .             .             .             .             .             .             .  .12 

Palm  Capital,      ........  12 

Pillar  from  Sedingse,            .             .             .             .             .             .  .12 

The  Great  Sphinx,           .......  13 

Cleopatra's  Needles,             .            .            .            .            .            .  .15 

Pavilion  at  Medinet  Habou,       .  .  .  .  .  .17 

Temple  on  the  Island  of  Philae,        .             .             .             .             .  .18 

Gateways  in  Walls  of  Khorsabad,           .....  21 

Entrance  to  Smaller  Temple  (Nimrud),       .            .            .            .  .22 

Pavement  Slab  (from  Koyunjik),            .....  23 

Remains  of   Propylaeum,  or  Outer  Gateway  (Khorsabad),            .  .     24 

Plan  of  Palace  (Khorsabad),       ......  25 

Relief  from  Khorsabad.     A  Temple,          .            .            .            .  .26 

Restoration  of  an  Assyrian  Palace,       .....  28 

Elevation  of  the  Temple  of  the  Seven  Spheres  at  Borsippa,         .  .31 

Birs-i-Nimrud   (near  Babylon),             .....  33 

Masonry  of  Great    Platform    (Persepolis),             .             .             .  .36 

Parapet  Wall  of  Staircase.     Persepolis.     (Restored),    ...  37 

Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Darius  (Persepolis),             .             .             .  .38 

Gateway  of  Hall  of  a  Hundred  Columns,          .             .            .            .  3Q 


Viii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Double-horned  Lion  Capital,  ......  40 

Complex  Capital  and  Base  of  Pillars  (Persepolis),            .            .  .40 

Base  of  Another  Pillar  (Persepolis),    .....  40 

Ground-plan  (Restored)  of  Hall  of  Xerxes  (Persepolis),            .  .     41 

Part  of  a  Base  of  the  Time  of  Cyrus  (Pasargadae),   ...  42 

The  Tomb  of  Cyrus,            .            .            .            .            .            .  .43 

Roof  of  One  of  the  Compartments  of  the  Gate  Huldah,          .            .  45 

Temple  of  Diana  (Eleusis),  .            .            .            .            .            .  .48 

Gravestone  from  Mycenae  (Schliemann),          .  .  .  .49 

Small  Temple  at  Rhamnus,             .            .            .            .            .  .5° 

The  Parthenon.     Athens.     (Restored),           .            .            .            .  51 

Plan  of  Temple  of  Apollo  (Bassae),             .            .            *            .  .     52 

From  the  Parthenon  (Athens),              .            .            .            •            •  53 

Ionic  Architecture,  .            .            .            .            .            .            •  •     55 

Ionic  Base,          ........  55 

Attic  Base,    .........     55 

Base  from  Temple  of  Hera  (Samos),     .....  56 

Ionic  Capital  (front  view),   .            .            .            .            .            .  .     56 

Ionic  Capital  (side  view),            ......  56 

From    Monument  of   Lysicrates  (Athens),            .            .            .  .57 

Corinthian  Order,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .58 

Caryatid,       ....  .....     59 

Stool,  or  Chair  (Khorsabad),      .            .            .            .            .            .  .      59 

The  Acropolis.     Athens.     (Restored),        .            .            .            *  .63 

The  Erechtheium.     Athens.     (Restored),         ....  66 

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates.     Athens,         .            .            .  .68 

The  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  (Restored),            ...  69 

Tombs  at  Castel  d'Asso,      .            .             .            .                         .  .     71 

Principal  Chamber  of  the  Regulini-Galeassi  Tomb,     ...  72 

Arch  at  Volterra,      .            .            .            .            .            .            .  .73 

Gateway  (Arpino),           .......  73 

Arch  of  Cloaca  Maxima  (Rome),     .            .            .            .            .  .74 

Composite  Order,  from  the  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus  (Rome),        .  75 

Doric  Arcade,           .            .            .            .            .            .            .  .76 

Ground-plan  of  Pantheon  (Rome),        .....  77 

Interior  of  the  Pantheon,    .            .            .            .            .            .  .78 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Basilica  of  Maxentius,            ...  79 

Arch  of  Constantine  (Rome),            .            .            .            .            .  .82 

Arch  of   Trajan  (Beneventum),             .            .            .            .            .  83 

Tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella,     .            .            .            .            .            .  .84 

Columbarium  near  the  Gate  of  St.  Sebastian  (Rome),            .            .  85 

Interior  of   Basilica  of  St.  Paul's  (Rome),            .            .            .  .88 

The  Cathedral  of  Chartres,        .  .  .  .  .  .91 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  ix 


Church  of  St.  Nicholas  (Caen),        .  .  .  .  .  -95 

Fa9ade  of  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  (Paris),     ....          96 

Clustered   Pillar,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -97 

Buttress,  ........  97 

Hinge,  .........     97 

Iron-work,  ........97 

Gargoyle,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -97 

Nail-head,  ........  9& 

Scroll,  .........     98 

Section  of  Church  (Carcassone).     With  Outer  Aisles  Added  in  Four- 
teenth Century,  .  .  .  .  .  .  -99 

Spires  of  Laon  Cathedral,  ......         100 

Portal  of  the  Minorites'  Church  (Vienna),  ....  101 

External  Elevation,  Cathedral  of  Paris,  ....         102 

Wheel   Window,  from  Cathedral   (Toscanella),     ....  103 

Collegiate  Church.      Toro.     (From  Villa  Amil),  ...         105 

St.  Paul,    Saragossa,  .......   106 

Cloister  (Tarazona),        .  .  .  .  .  .  .         107 

Rood-screen,  from  the  Madeleine  (Troyes),  .  .  .  .  loS 

Palace  of  Wartburg,         .......         109 

Tower  of  Cremona,  .......  in 

St.  Mark's  Cathedral  (Venice),  .  .  .  .  .  .113. 

Section  of  San  Miniato  (near  Florence),     .  .  .  .  .   115 

San  Giovanni  degli  Eremiti  (Palermo),  .  .  .  .116 

Church  of  St.  Sophia.      Constantinople.     (Exterior  View),  .  .   118 

Lower  Order  of  St.  Sophia,        .  .  .  .  .  .119. 

Upper  Order  of   St.  Sophia,  ......   120- 

Interior  View  of  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  ....         121 

Mosque  of   Kaitbey,  .......  124 

The  Call  to  Prayer,         .......         125 

Exterior  of  the  Sanctuary  in  the  Mosque  of  Cordova,       .  .  .  127 

Court  of  the  Lions  (Alhambra),  .....         131 

The  Cathedral  of  Florence  and  Giotto's  Campanile,         .  .  .   135 

View  of  St.  Peter's  (Rome),        ......         137 

Section  of  St.  Peter's,  .......  139. 

East  Elevation  of  Library  of  St.  Mark,  ....         141 

The  Doge's  Palace  (Venice),  ......   143 

Great  Court  of   the   Hospital  of  Milan,  ....         144 

The  Escurial  (near  Madrid),  ......   147 

Fa$ade  of  the  Church  of  St.  Michael   (Dijon),  ...         155 

Facade  of  the  Dome  of  the  Invalides  (Paris),         ....  156 

The  Pantheon  (Paris),     .......         157 

The  Madeleine  (Paris),         .......  159. 


X  ^iST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Pavilion  de  1'Horloge  and  Part  of  the  Court  of  the  Louvre,    .  .         161 

Chateau  of  Chambord,         .......   163 

Porte  St.  Denis   (Paris),  ......         164 

Arc  de  1'Etoile  (Paris),         .  .  .  .  .  .  .165 

East  Elevation  of  St.  Paul's  (Covent  Garden),  .  .  .167 

St.  Paul's,  London  (from  the  West),  .....  168 

St.  George's  Hall  (Liverpool),    ......         169 

Windsor  Castle,        ........   170 

The  Houses  of  Parliament  (London),    .  .  «  .  .         171 

The  Brandenburg  Gate  (Berlin),     ...»,.  174 
The  Basilica  at  Munich,  ......         175 

The   Ruhmeshalle   (near  Munich),  .  .  .  .  .176 

The  Museum  (Berlin),    .  .  .  .  .  .  .177 

The  Walhalla 178 

The  New  Opera  House  (Paris),  .....         180 

The  United  States  Capitol  (Washington),  ....  182 

State  Capitol  (Columbus,  Ohio),  .....        183 

Sir  William  Pepperell's  House  (Kittery  Point,  Maine),    .  .  .  185 

Old  Morrisania  (Morrisania,  New  York),          ....        187 
Residence  at  Irvington,  New  York,  .....  189 


ARCHITECTURE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

ANCIENT   OR   HEATHEN   ARCHITECTURE. 
3OOO    B.C.  TO    A.D.   328. 

A  RCHITECTURE  seems  to  me  to  be  the  most  wonder- 
-t\  ful  of  all  the  arts.  We  may  not  love  it  as  much  as 
others,  when  we  are  young  perhaps  we  cannot  do  so, 
because  it  is  so  great  and  so  grand  ;  but  at  any  time  of  life 
one  can  see  that  in  Architecture  some  of  the  most  marvel- 
lous achievements  of  men  are  displayed.  The  principal 
reason  for  saying  this  is  that  Architecture  is  not  an  imita- 
tive art,  like  Painting  and  Sculpture.  The  first  picture  that 
was  ever  painted  was  a  portrait  or  an  imitation  of  some, 
thing  that  the  painter  had  seen.  So  in  Sculpture,  the  first 
statue  or  bas-relief  was  an  attempt  to  reproduce  some  being 
or  object  that  the  sculptor  had  seen,  or  to  make  a  work 
which  combined  portions  of  several  things  that  he  had 
observed  ;  but  in  Architecture  this  was  not  true.  No 
temples  or  tombs  or  palaces  existed  until  they  had  first 
taken  form  in  the  mind  and  imagination  of  the  builders, 
and  were  created  out  of  space  and  nothingness,  so  to  speak. 
Thus  Painting  and  Sculpture  are  imitative  arts,  but  Archi- 
tecture is  a  constructive  art  ;  and  while  one  may  love  pict- 


2  ARCHITECTURE. 

ures  or  statues  more  than  the  work  of  the  architect,  it  seems 
to  me  that  one  must  wonder  most  at  the  last. 

We  do  not  know  how  long  the  earth  has  existed,  and  in 
studying  the  most  ancient  times  of  which  we  have  any 
accurate  knowledge,  we  come  upon  facts  which  prove  that 
men  must  have  lived  and  died  long  before  the  dates  of 
which  we  can  speak  exactly.  The  earliest  nations  of  whose 
Architecture  we  can  give  an  account  are  called  heathen 
nations,  and  their  art  is  called  Ancient  or  Heathen  Art,  and 
this  comes  down  to  the  time  when  the  Roman  Emperor 
Constantine  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  changed  the 
Roman  Capitol  from  Rome  to  Constantinople  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  328. 

The  buildings  and  the  ruins  which  still  remain  from  these 
ancient  times  are  in  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  Judea,  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  Etruria,  and  Rome.  Many  of  these  have 
been  excavated  or  uncovered,  as,  during  the  ages  that  have 
passed  since  their  erection,  they  had  been  buried  away 
from  sight  by  the  accumulation  of  earth  about  them. 
These  excavations  are  always  going  on  in  various  countries, 
and  men  are  ever  striving  to  learn  more  about  the  wonders 
of  ancient  days  ;  and  we  may  hope  that  in  the  future  as 
marvellous  things  may  be  revealed  to  us  as  have  been 
shown  in  the  past. 

EGYPT. 

As  we  consider  the  Architecture  of  Egypt,  the  Great 
Pyramid  first  attracts  attention  on  account  of  its  antiquity 
and  its  importance.  This  was  built  by  Cheops,  who  is 
also  called  Suphts,  about  3000  years  before  Christ.  At 
that  distant  day  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  been  a  nation 
of  pyramid-builders,  for  even  now,  after  all  the  years  that 
have  rolled  between  them  and  us,  we  know  of  more  than 
sixty  of  these  mysterious  monuments  which  have  been 
opened  and  explored. 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.  3 

Of  all  these  the  three  pyramids  at  Ghizeh  (Fig.  i)  are 
best  known,  and  that  of  Cheops  is  the  most  remarkable 
among  them.  Those  of  you  who  have  studied  the  history 
of  the  wars  of  Napoleon  I.  will  remember  that  it  was  near 
this  spot  that  he  fought  the  so-called  Battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids, and  that  in  addressing  his  soldiers  he  reminded 
them  that  here  the  ages  looked  down  upon  them,  thus  refer- 
ring to  the  many  years  during  which  this  great  pyramid  had 
stood  on  the  border  of  the  desert,  as  if  watching  the  flight 
of  Time  and  calmly  waiting  to  see  what  would  happen  on 
the  final  day  of  all  earthly  things. 

There  have  been  much  speculation  and  many  opinions 
as  to  the  use  for  which  these  pyramids  were  made,  but  the 
most  general  belief  is  that  they  were  intended  for  the  tombs 
of  the  powerful  kings  who  reigned  in  Egypt  and  caused 
them  to  be  built. 

The  pyramid  of  Cheops  was  four  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
and  nine  inches  high,  and  its  base  was  seven  hundred  and 
sixty-four  feet  square.  It  is  so  difficult  to  understand  the 
size  of  anything  from  mere  figures,  that  I  shall  try  to  make 
it  plainer  by  saying  that  it  covers  more  than  thirteen  acres 
of  land,  which  is  more  than  twice  as  much  as  is  covered  by 
any  building  in  the  world.  Its  height  is  as  great  as  that  of 
any  cathedral  spire  in  Europe,  and  more  than  twice  that  of 
the  monument  on  Bunker  Hill,  which  is  but  two  hundred 
and  twenty  feet,  and  yet  looks  very  high. 

When  it  was  built  it  was  covered  with  a  casing  of  stone, 
the  different  pieces  being  fitted  together  and  polished  to  a 
surface  like  glass  ;  but  this  covering  has  been  torn  away 
and  the  stones  used  for  other  purposes,  which  has  left  the 
pyramid  in  a  series  of  two  hundred  and  three  rough  and 
jagged  steps,  some  of  them  being  two  feet  and  a  half  in 
height,  growing  less  toward  the  top,  but  not  diminishing 
with  any  regularity.  The  top  is  now  a  platform  thirty-two 
feet  and  eight  inches  square.  Each  traveller  who  ascends 


ARCHITECTURE. 


this  pyramid  has  from  one  to  four  Fellahs  or  Arabs,  who 
pull  him  forward  or  upward  by  his  arms,  or  push  him  and 
lift  him  from  behind,  and  finally  drag  him  to  the  top  (Fig. 
2).  When  he  thinks  of  all  the  weary  months  and  days  of 
the  twenty  years  during  which  it  is  said  that  those  who 
built  it  worked,  cutting  out  the  stone  in  the  quarries,  inov- 

.  ing  it  to  the 
spot  where  it 
was  required, 
and  then  raising 
it  to  the  great 
heights  and  fit- 
ting it  all  in 
place,  he  re- 
gards his  fa- 
tigue in  its  as- 
cent as  a  little 
thing,  though 
at  the  time  it  is 
no  joke  to  him. 
Many  of  the 
pyramids  were 
encased  in 
stone  taken 
from  the  Mo- 
kattam  Moun- 
tains, which 
were  somewhat 
more  than  half 

a  mile  distant  ;  but  the  pyramid  of  Cheops  was  covered 
with  the  red  Syenite  granite,  which  must  have  been  quar- 
ried in  the  "  red  mountain,"  nearly  five  hundred  miles 
away,  near  to  Syene,  or  the  modern  Assouan.  The  interior 
of  the  pyramid  is  divided  into  chambers  and  passages  (Fig. 
3),  which  are  lined  with  beautiful  slabs  of  granite  and  con- 


FIG.  2. — THE  ASCENT  OF  A  PYRAMID. 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT. 


structed  in  such  a  way  as  to  prove  that  at  the  remote  time 
in  which  the  pyramids  were  built  Egyptian  architects  and 
workmen  were  already  skilled  in  planning  and  executing 
great  works.  Of  the  seventy  pyramids  known  to  have  ex- 
isted in  those  early  days,  sixty-nine  had  the  entrance  on  the 
north  side,  leaving  but 
a  single  exception  to 
this  rule  ;  all  of  them 
were  situated  on  the 
western  side  of  the 
River  Nile,  just  on  the 
edge  of  the  desert,  be- 
yond the  strip  of  cul- 
tivable ground  which 
borders  the  river. 

Near  the  pyramids 
there  are  numerous 
tombs,  which  are  built 
somewhat  like  low 
houses,  having  several 
apartments  with  but 
one  entrance  from  the 
outside.  The  walls  of 
these  apartments  are 
adorned  with  pictures 
similar  to  this  one  of  a 
poulterer's  shop  (Fig. 
4)  ;  they  represent  the 
manners  and  customs  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians 
with  great  exactness. 

The  tombs  at  Beni-Hassan  are  among  the  most  ancient 
ruins  of  Egypt,  and  are  very  interesting  (Fig.  5).  They 
were  made  between  2466  and  2266  B.C.  They  are  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  are  hewn  out  of  the  solid 


FIG.  3. — VIEW  OF  GALLERY  IN  THE  GREAT 
PYRAMID. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  4. — POULTERER'S  SHOP. 

rock  ;  they  are  ornamented  with  sculptures  and  pictures 
which  are  full  of  interest  ;  it  has  been  said  that  these  tombs 
were  built  by  the  Pharaoh,  or  king,  of  Joseph's  time,  and 
one  of  the  paintings  is  often  spoken  of  as  being  a  represen- 
tation of  the  brethren  of  Joseph  ;  but  of  this  there  is  no 

proof.  The  colors  of 
the  pictures  are  fresh 
and  bright,  and  they 
show  that  many  of  the 
customs  and  amuse- 
ments of  that  long, 
long  ago  were  similar  to 
our  own,  and  in  some 
cases  quite  the  same. 
The  manufactures  of 
FIG.  5.— ROCK-CUT  TOMB,  BENI-HASSAN.  glass  and  linen,  cabinet 

work,  gold   ornaments, 

and  other  artistic  objects  are  pictured  there  ;  the  games  of 
ball,  draughts,  and  morra  are  shown,  while  the  animals, 
birds,  and  fishes  of  Egypt  are  all  accurately  depicted. 

An  interesting  thing  to  notice  about  these  tombs  is  the 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.  7 

way  in  which  the  epistyle — the  part  resting  upon  the 
columns — imitates  squarely-hewn  joists;  as  if  the  roof  were 
of  wood  supported  by  a  row  of  timbers.  When  we  come 
to  the  architecture  of  Greece  we  shall  see  that  its  most 
important  style,  the  Doric,  arose  from  the  imitation  in 
stone  of  the  details  of  a  wooden  roof,  and  from  a  likeness 
between  these  tombs  and  the  Doric  order,  this  style  has 
been  named  the  Proto-Doric. 

The  tombs  near  Thebes  which  are  called  the  "  Tombs  of 
the  Kings,"  and  many  other  Egyptian  tombs,  are  very  inter- 
esting, and  within  a  short  time  some  which  had  not  before 
been  observed  have  been  opened,  and  proved  to  be  rich  in 
decorations,  and  also  to  contain  valuable  ornaments  and 
works  of  art,  as  well  as  papyri,  or  records  of  historical  value. 

The  most  magnificent  of  all  the  Egyptian  tombs  is  that 
of  King  Seti  I.,  who  began  to  reign  in  1366  B.C.  He  was 
fond  of  splendid  buildings,  and  all  the  architects  of  his  time 
were  very  busy  in  carrying  out  his  plans.  His  tomb  was 
not  discovered  until  1817,  and  was  then  found  by  an  Italian 
traveller,  whose  name,  Belzoni,  has  been  given  to  the  tomb. 
The  staircase  by  which  it  is  entered  is  twenty-four  feet  long, 
and  opens  into  a  spacious  passage,  the  walls  of  which  are 
beautifully  ornamented  with  sculptures  and  paintings. 
This  is  succeeded  by  other  staircases,  fine  halls,  and  cor- 
ridors, all  of  which  extend  four  hundred  and  five  feet  into 
the  mountain  in  which  the  tomb  is  excavated,  making  also 
a  gradual  descent  of  ninety  feet  from  its  entrance.  It  is  a 
wonderful  monument  to  the  skill  and  taste  of  the  architects 
who  lived  and  labored  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago. 

The  two  principal  cities  of  ancient  Egypt  were  Memphis 
and  Thebes.  The  first  has  been  almost  literally  taken  to 
pieces  and  carried  away,  for  as  other  more  modern  cities 
have  been  built  up  near  it,  the  materials  which  were  first 
used  in  the  old  temples  and  palaces  have  been  carried  here 
and  there,  and  again  utilized  in  erecting  new  edifices. 


8  ARCHITECTURE. 

Thebes,  on  the  contrary,  has  stood  alone  during  all  the 
centuries  that  have  passed  since  its  decline,  and  there  is 
now  no  better  spot  in  which  to  study  the  ancient  Egyptian 
architecture,  because  its  temples  are  still  so  complete  that  a 
good  idea  can  be  formed  from  them  of  what  they  must  have 
been  when  they  were  perfect.  The  ruins  at  Thebes  are  on 
both  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  no  description  can  do  justice  to 
their  grandeur,  or  give  a  full  estimate  of  their  wonders  ; 
but  I  shall  try  to  tell  something  of  the  palace-temple  of 
Karnak,  which  has  been  called  "  the  noblest  effort  of  archi- 
tectural magnificence  ever  produced  by  the  hand  of  man." 

The  word  palace-temple  has  a  strange  sound  to  us 
because  we  do  not  now  associate  the  ideas  which  the  two 
words  represent.  Many  palaces  of  more  modern  countries 
and  times  have  their  chapels,  but  the  union  of  a  grand 
temple  and  a  grand  palace  is  extremely  rare,  to  say  the 
least.  Perhaps  the  Vatican  and  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  repre- 
sent the  idea  and  spirit  of  the  Egyptian  palace-temples  as 
nearly  as  any  buildings  that  are  now  in  existence. 

The  Egyptian  religion  controlled  all  the  affairs  of  the 
nation.  The  Pharaoh,  or  king,  was  the  chief  of  the  re- 
ligion, as  well  as  of  the  State.  When  a  king  came  to  the 
throne  he  became  a  priest  also,  by  being  made  a  member  of 
a  priestly  order.  He  was  instructed  in  sacred  learning  ;  he 
regulated  the  service  of  the  temple  ;  on  great  occasions  he 
offered  the  sacrifices  himself,  and,  in  fact,  he  was  considered 
not  only  as  a  descendant  of  gods,  but  as  a  veritable  god. 
In  some  sculptures  and  paintings  the  gods  are  represented 
as  attending  upon  the  kings,  and  after  the  death  of  a  king 
the  same  sort  of  veneration  was  paid  to  him  as  that  given 
to  the  gods.  This  explains  the  building  of  the  palace  and 
temple  together,  and  shows  the  reason  why  the  gods  and  the 
kings,  and  the  affairs  of  religion  and  of  government,  could 
not  be  separated.  As  we  study  the  arts  of  different  coun- 
tries we  are  constantly  reminded  that  the  religion  of  a 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.  9 

people  is  the  central  point  from  which  the  arts  spring  forth. 
From  its  teachings  they  take  their  tone,  and  adapt  their 
forms  and  uses  to  its  requirements.  I  refer  to  this  fact 
from  time  to  time  because  it  is  important  to  remember  that 
it  underlies  much  of  the  art  of  the  world. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  the  art  of  Egypt  was  devoted  to 
the  service  of  its  religion.  Of  course  this  is  true  of  that 
used  in  the  decoration  of  the  temples  ;  it  is  also  true  of  all 
that  did  honor  to  the  kings,  because  they  were  regarded  as 
sacred  persons,  and  all  their  wars  and  wonderful  acts  which 
are  represented  in  sculpture  and  painting,  and  by  statues 
and  obelisks,  are  considered  as  deeds  that  were  performed 
for  the  sake  of  the  gods  and  by  their  aid. 

It  was  also  the  religious  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  that  led  the  Egyptians  to  build  their  tombs  with  such 
care,  and  to  provide  such  splendid  places  in  which  to  lay 
the  body,  which  was  the  house  of  the  spirit. 

In  the  study  of  Architecture  it  will  also  be  noted  that  a 
country  which  has  no  national  religion — or  one  in  which  the 
government  and  the  religion  have  no  connection  with  each 
other — has  no  absolutely  national  architecture.  It  will  have 
certain  features  which  depend  upon  the  climate,  the  build- 
ing materials  at  command,  and  upon  the  general  customs  of 
the  people  ;  but  here  and  there  will  be  seen  specimens  of 
all  existing  orders  of  architecture,  and  buildings  in  some 
degree  representing  the  art  of  all  countries  and  periods  ; 
such  architecture  is  known  by  the  term  composite,  because 
it  is  composed  of  portions  of  several  different  orders,  and 
has  no  absolutely  distinct  character. 

This  palace-temple  of  Karnak  is  made  up  of  a  collection 
of  courts  and  halls,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  comprehend 
the  size  of  all  these  parts  which  go  to  make  up  the  enor- 
mous whole.  The  entire  space  devoted  to  it  is  almost 
twice  as  large  as  the  whole  area  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and 
four  times  as  great  as  any  of  the  other  cathedrals  of 


10 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Europe  ;  a  dozen  of  the  largest  American  churches  could 
be  placed  within  its  limits  and  there  still  be  room  for  a  few 
chapels.  All  this  enormous  space  is  not  covered  by  roofs, 
for  there  were  many  courts  and  passages  which  were  always 
open  to  the  sky,  and  one  portion  was  added  after  another, 
and  by  one  sovereign  and  another,  until  the  completion  of 
the  whole  was  made  long  after  the  Pharaoh  who  commenced 
it  had  been  laid  in  one  of  the  tombs  of  the  kings. 


FIG.  t>. — THE  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  KARNAK. 

The  most  remarkable  apartment  of  all  is  called  the  great 
Hypostyle  Hall,  which  high-sounding  name  means  simply  a 
hall  with  pillars  (Fig.  6).  This  hall  and  its  two  pylons,  or 
entrances,  cover  more  space  than  the  great  cathedral  of 
Cologne,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous 
churches  of  all  Europe. 

This  splendid  hall  had  originally  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
four  magnificent  columns,  of  which  more  than  one  hundred 
still  remain  ;  they  are  of  colossal  size,  some  of  them  being 
sixty  feet  high  without  the  oase  or  capital,  which  would 
increase  them  to  ninety  feet,  and  their  diameter  is  twelve 


ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT. 


II 


Capital 


feet.  This  large  number  of  columns  was  necessary  to 
uphold  the  roof,  as  the  Egyptians  knew  nothing  of  the 
arch,  and  had  no  way  of  supporting  a  covering  over  a  space 
wider  than  it  was  possible  to  cover  by  beams.  The  hall 
was  lighted  by  making  the  columns  down  the  middle  half 
as  high  again  as  the  others,  so  that 
the  roof  was  lifted,  and  the  light 
came  in  at  the  sides,  which  were 
left  open. 

As  I  must  speak  often  of  col- 
umns, it  is  well  to  say  here  that 
the  column  or  pillar  usually  con- 
sists of  three  parts — the  base,  the 
shaft,  and  the  capital  (Fig.  7).  The 
base  is  the  lowest  part  on  which  the 
shaft  rests.  Sometimes,  as  in  the 
Grecian  Doric  order,  the  base  is 
left  out.  The  capital  is  the  head 
of  the  column,  and  is  usually  the 
most  ornamental  part,  giving  the 
most  noticeable  characteristics  of 
the  different  kinds  of  pillars.  The 
shaft  is  the  body  of  the  pillar,  be- 
tween the  base  and  capital,  or  all 
below  the  capital  when  the  base  is 
omitted. 

The  Egyptian  pillars  seem  to 
have  grown  out  of  the  square  stone 
piers  which  at  first  were  used  for 
support.  The  square  corners  were 
first  cut  off,  making  an  eight-sided  pier  ;  then  some  archi- 
tect carried  the  cutting  farther,  and  by  slicing  off  each  cor- 
ner once  more  gave  the  pillar  sixteen  sides.  The  advantage 
of  the  octagonal  piers  over  the  square  ones  was  that  the 
cutting  off  of  sharp  corners  made  it  easier  for  people  to 


Base. 


FIG.  7. — PILLAR  FROM 

THEBES. 
Showing  the  three  parts. 


12 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  8. — SCULPTURED 
CAPITAL. 


move  about  between  them,  while  the  play  of  light  on  the 
sides  was  more  varied  and  pleasant  to  the  eye.  The  six- 
teen-sided pillar  did  not  much  increase 
the  first  of  these  advantages,  while  the 
face  of  its  sides  became  so  narrow  that 
the  variety  of  light  and  shade  was  less 
distinct  and  attractive.  It  is  probable 
that  the  channelling  of  the  sides  of  the 
shaft  was  first  done  to  overcome  this 
difficulty,  by  making  the  shadows  deep- 
er and  the  lights  more  striking  ;  and 
we  then  have  a 
shaft  very  like  that 
of  the  Grecian 

Doric  shown  in  the  picture  in  Fig.  40, 
or  the  Assyrian  pillars  in  Figs.  29  and 
30.  In  the  Egyptian  pil- 
lars it  was  usual  to  leave 
one  side  unchannelled  and 
ornament  it  with  hiero- 
glyphics. In  time  the 
forms  of  the  Egyptian  pil- 
lars became  very  varied, 
and  the  richest  ornaments  were  used  upon 
them.  The  columns  in  the  hall  at  Karnak  are 
very  much  decorated  with  painting  and  sculp- 
tures, as  Fig.  6  shows.  The  capitals  represent 
the  full-blown  flowers  and  the  buds  of  the 
sacred  lotus,  or  water-lily.  In  other  cases  the 
pillars  were  made  to  represent  bundles  of  the 
papyrus  plant,  and  the  capitals  were  often  beau- 
tifully carved  with  palm  leaves  or  ornamented 
with  a  female  head.  (See  Figs.  8,  9,  and  10). 
The  whole  impression  of  grandeur  made  by  the  Temple 
of  Karnak  was  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  Temple  of 


FIG.  9. — PALM  CAPITAL. 


FIG.  10. — 

PILLAR  FROM 

SEDINGA. 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.          13 

Luxor,  which  is  not  far  away,  is  also  very  impressive  and 
beautiful,  and  was  formerly  connected  with  Karnak  by  an 
avenue  bordered  on  each  side  with  a  row  of  sphinxes  cut 
out  of  stone.  These  were  a  kind  of  statue  which  belonged 
to  Egyptian  art,  and  originated  in  an  Egyptian  idea, 
although  a  resemblance  to  it  exists  in  the  art  of  other 
ancient  countries  (Fig.  n). 


THE  GREAT  SPHINX. 

Before  the  Temple  of  Luxor  stood  Colossi,  or  enormous 
statues,  of  Rameses  the  Great,  who  built  the  temple,  and 
not  far  distant  were  two  fine  obelisks,  one  of  which  is  now 
in  Paris. 

There  was  much  irregularity  in  the  lines  and  plan  of 
Egyptian  palaces  and  temples.  It  often  happens  that  the 


14  ARCHITECTURE. 

side  walls  of  an  apartment  or  court-yard  are  not  at  right 
angles  ;  the  pillars  were  placed  so  irregularly  and  the  deco- 
rations so  little  governed  by  any  rule  in  their  arrangement, 
that  it  seems  as  if  the  Egyptians  were  intentionally  regard- 
less of  symmetry  and  regularity. 

The  whole  effect  of  the  ancient  Thebes  can  scarcely  be 
imagined  ;  its  grandeur  was  much  increased  by  the  fact  that 
its  splendid  buildings  were  on  both  banks  of  the  Nile, 
which  river  flowed  slowly  and  majestically  by,  as  if  it  bor- 
rowed a  sort  of  dignity  from  the  splendid  piles  which  it 
reflected,  and  which  those  who  sailed  upon  its  bosom 
regarded  with  awe  and  admiration.  There  are  many  other 
places  on  the  Nile  where  one  sees  wonderful  ruins  of  ancient 
edifices,  but  we  have  not  space  to  describe  or  even  to  name 
them,  and  Thebes  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all. 

"  Thebes,  hearing  still  the  Memnon's  mystic  tones, 
Where  Egypt's  earliest  monarchs  reared  their  thrones, 
Favored  of  Jove  !  the  hundred-gated  queen, 
Though  fallen,  grand  ;  though  desolate,  serene  ; 
The  blood  with  awe  runs  coldly  through  our  veins 
As  we  approach  her  far-spread,  vast  remains. 
Forests  of  pillars  crown  old  Nilus'  side, 
Obelisks  to  heaven  high  lift  their  sculptured  pride  ; 
Rows  of  dark  sphinxes,  sweeping  far  away, 
Lead  to  proud  fanes  and  tombs  august  as  they. 
Colossal  chiefs  in  granite  sit  around, 
As  wrapped  in  thought,  or  sunk  in  grief  profound. 

"  The  mighty  columns  ranged  in  long  array. 
The  statues  fresh  as  chiselled  yesterday, 
We  scarce  can  think  two  thousand  years  have  flown 
Since  in  proud  Thebes  a  Pharaoh's  grandeur  shone, 
But  in  yon  marble  court  or  sphinx-lined  street. 
Some  moving  pageant  half  expect  to  meet, 
See  great  Sesostris,  come  from  distant  war. 
Kings  linked  in  chains  to  drag  his  ivory  car  ; 
Or  view  that  bright  procession  sweeping  on, 
To  meet  at  Memphis  far-famed  Solomon, 
When,  borne  by  Love,  he  crossed  the  Syrian  wild, 
To  wed  the  Pharaoh's  blooming  child." 


EGYPTIAN   OBELISKS.  1$ 

The  obelisks  of  ancient  Egypt  have  a  present  interest 
which  is  almost  personal  to  everybody,  since  so  many  of 
them  have  been  taken  away  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and 
so  placed  that  they  now  overlook  the  Bosphorus,  the  Tiber, 
the  Seine,  the  Thames,  and  our  own  Hudson  River  ;  in 


FIG.  12. — CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLES. 

truth,  there  are  twelve  obelisks  in  Rome,  which  is  a  larger 
number  than  are  now  standing  in  all  Egypt. 

The  above  cut  (Fig.  12)  shows  the  two  obelisks  known 
as  Cleopatra's  Needles,  as  they  were  seen  for  a  long  time 
at  Alexandria.  They  have  both  crossed  the  seas  ;  one  was 
presented  to  the  British  nation  by  Mehemet  Ali,  and  the 


l6  ARCHITECTURE. 

other,  which  now  stands  in  Central  Park,  was  a  gift  to 
America  from  the  late  Khedive  of  Egypt,  Ismail  Pasha. 

The  obelisks  were  usually  erected  by  the  kings  to  ex- 
press their  worship  of  the  gods,  and  stood  before  the 
temple  bearing  dedications  of  the  house  to  its  particular 
deity  ;  they  were  covered  with  the  quaint,  curious  devices 
which  served  as  letters  to  the  Egyptians,  which  we  call 
hieroglyphics,  and  each  sovereign  thus  recorded  his  praises, 
and  declared  his  respect  for  the  special  gods  whom  he 
wished  to  honor.  They  were  very  striking  objects,  and 
must  have  made  a  fine  effect  when  the  temples  and  statues 
and  avenues  of  sphinxes,  and  all  the  ancient  grandeur  of 
the  Egyptians  was  at  its  height  ;  and  these  grave  stone 
watchmen  looked  down  upon  triumphal  processions  and 
gorgeous  ceremonials,  and  kings  and  queens  with  their 
trains  of  courtiers  passed  near  them  on  their  way  to  and 
from  the  temple-palaces. 

It  is  always  interesting  to  study  the  houses  and  homes 
of  a  people — domestic  architecture,  as  it  is  called  ;  but  one 
cannot  do  that  in  Egypt.  It  may  almost  be  said  that  but 
one  ancient  home  exists,  and  as  that  probably  belonged  to 
some  royal  person,  we  cannot  learn  from  it  how  the  people 
lived.  There  were  many  very  rich  Egyptians  outside  of  the 
royal  families,  and  they  dwelt  in  splendor  and  luxury  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  there  were  multitudes  of  slaves  and  very 
poor  people,  who  had  barely  enough  to  eat  to  keep  them 
alive  and  enable  them  to  do  the  work  which  was  set  them 
by  their  task-masters. 

The  house  of  which  we  speak  is  at  Medinet  Habou,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Nile  from  Karnak  (Fig.  13).  It 
has  three  floors,  with  three  rooms  on  each  floor,  and  is  very 
irregular  in  form.  But  if  we  have  no  ancient  houses  to 
study  in  Egypt,  we  can  learn  much  about  them  from  the 
paintings  which  still  exist,  and  we  may  believe  that  the 
cities  which  surrounded  the  old  temples  fully  displayed  the 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.          1 7 

wealth  and  taste  of  the  inhabitants.  These  pictures  show 
the  houses  in  the  midst  of  gardens  laid  out  with  arbors, 
pavilions,  artificial  lakes,  and  many  beautiful  objects,  such 
as  we  see  in  the  fine  gardens  of  our  own  day. 


FIG.  13. — PAVILION  AT  MEDINET  HABOU. 

After  about  1200  B.C.  there  was  a  long  period  of  decline 
in  the  architecture  of  Egypt  ;  occasionally  some  sovereign 
tried  to  do  as  the  older  kings  had  done,  but  no  real  revival 
of  the  arts  occurred  until  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies  was 
established  ;  this  was  after  332  B.C.,  when  Alexander  the 
Great  conquered  the  Persians,  who  had  ruled  in  Egypt 
about  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  years. 

Under  the  Ptolemies  Egypt  was  as  prosperous  as  she 
had  been  under  the  Pharaohs,  but  the  arts  of  this  later  time 
never  reached  such  purity  and  greatness  as  was  shown  in 
the  best  days  of  Thebes  ;  the  buildings  were  rich  and 
splendid  instead  of  noble  and  grand,  or,  as  we  might  say, 
"  more  for  show"  than  was  the  older  style. 

It  is  singular  that,  though  the  Egypt  of  the  Ptolemies 
was  under  Greek  and  Roman  influence,  it  still  remained 
essentially  Egyptian.  It  seems  as  if  the  country  had  a  sort 
of  converting  effect  upon  the  strangers  who  planned  and 
built  the  temples  of  Denderah,  and  Edfou,  and  beautiful 
.Philse,  and  made  them  try  to  work  and  build  as  if  they 


18 


ARCHITECTURE. 


were  the  sons  of  the  pure  old  Egyptians  instead  of  foreign 
conquerors.  So  true  is  this  that  before  A.D.  1799,  when 
scholars  began  to  read  hieroglyphics,  the  learned  men  of 
Europe  who  studied  art  believed  that  these  later  temples 
were  older  than  those  of  Thebes. 

Outside  of  Thebes  there  is  no  building  now  to  be  seen 
in  Egypt  which  gives  so  charming  an  impression  of  what 
Egypt  might  be  as  does  the  lovely  temple  on  the  island  o£ 


FIG.  14. — TEMPLE  ON  THE  ISLAND  OF  PHIL^E. 


imposing,. 


Philae  (Fig.  14).     Others  are  more  sublime  and 
but  none  are  so  varied  and  beautiful. 

There  is  no  more  attractive  spot  in  Egypt  than  this; 
island,  and  when  we  know  that  the  priests  who  served  in 
the  Temple  of  Isis  here  were  never  allowed  to  leave  the 
island,  we  do  not  feel  as  if  that  was  a  misfortune  to  them. 
It  was  a  pity,  however,  that  none  but  priests  were  allowed 
to  go  there,  and  in  passing  I  wish  to  note  the  fact  that  this- 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE — EGYPT.          19 

was  the  most  ancient  monastery  of  which  we  know  ;  for 
that  it  was  in  simple  fact,  and  the  monks  lived  lives  of  strict 
devotion  and  suffered  severe  penance. 

The  buildings  at  Philae,  as  well  as  most  of  those  of  the 
Ptolemaic  age,  had  the  same  irregularity  of  form  of  which 
we  have  spoken  before  ;  their  design,  as  a  whole,  was  fine, 
but  the  details  were  inferior,  and  it  often  happens  that  the 
sculpture  and  painting  which  in  the  earlier  times  improved 
and  beautified  everything,  lost  their  effect  and  really  injured 
the  appearance  of  the  whole  structure. 

At  first  thought  one  would  expect  to  be  able  to  learn 
much  more  about  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  later 
than  of  the  earlier  days  of  Egypt,  and  to  find  out  just  how 
they  arranged  their  dwellings.  But  this  is  not  so,  for  his- 
tory tells  us  of  nothing  save  the  superstitious  religious 
worship  of  the  conquerors  of  Egypt.  There  are  no  pictures 
of  the  houses,  or  of  the  occupations  and  amusements  of  the 
people  ;  no  warlike  stories  are  told  ;  we  have  no  tombs  with 
their  instructive  inscriptions  ;  not  even  the  agricultural  and 
mechanical  arts  are  represented  in  the  ruins  of  this  time. 
The  fine  arts,  the  early  religion,  the  spirit  of  independence 
and  conquest  had  all  died  out  ;  in  truth,  the  wonderful 
civilization  of  the  days  of  the  pyramid-builders  and  their 
descendants  was  gone,  and  when  Constantine  came  into 
power  Egypt  had  lost  her  place  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  and  her  grandeur  was  as  a  tale  that  is  told. 

The  weakness  of  Egyptian  architecture  lay  in  its  monot- 
ony'or  sameness.  Not  only  did  it  not  develop  historically, 
remaining  very  much  the  same  as  long  as  it  lasted,  but  the 
same  forms  are  repeated  until,  even  with  all  their  grandeur, 
they  become  wearisome.  The  plan  of  the  temples  varies 
little  ;  the  tendency  toward  the  shape  of  the  pyramid 
appears  everywhere  ;  while  the  powerful  influence  of  the 
ritual  of  the  Egyptian  religion  gives  a  strong  likeness 
among  all  the  places  of  worship.  The  Greeks  performed 


20  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  most  important  parts  of  their  service  in  the  open  air 
before  their  temples,  and  almost  all  their  care  was  lavished 
on  exteriors  ;  the  Egyptians,  on  the  other  hand,  elaborated 
the  interior  with  great  abundance  of  ornaments,  yet  without 
that  power  of  adaptation  which  gave  so  great  an  air  of 
variety  and  grace  to  Grecian  art. 

A  second  and  even  more  serious  fault  in  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture is  a  want  of  proportion.  In  natural  organized 
objects  there  is  always  a  fixed  proportion  between  the  parts, 
so  that  if  a  naturalist  is  given  a  single  bone  of  an  animal  he 
can  reproduce  with  considerable  exactness  the  entire  beast. 
In  art  it  is  necessary  to  follow  this  principle  of  adapting  one 
part  to  another,  and  without  this  both  grace  and  refinement 
are  wanting.  The  Egyptian  temples  are  often  too  massive, 
so  that  they  impress  by  their  size  simply,  and  not  by  any 
beauty  of  plan  or  arrangement. 

Yet  for  grandeur  and  impressiveness  no  nation  has  ever 
excelled  the  Egyptians  as  builders.  One  may  prefer  the 
style  and  the  ornamentation  of  the  Greeks,  or  the  forms 
and  arrangement  of  the  Gothic  order  ;  but,  taken  as  a 
whole,  the  combination  of  architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  hieroglyphics  which  goes  to  make  up  an  Egyptian 
temple,  with  the  addition  of  the  obelisks,  the  avenues  of 
sphinxes  and  the  Colossi,  which  all  seemed  to  belong 
together — these,  one  and  all,  result  in  a  whole  that  has 
never  been  surpassed  in  effect  during  the  thirty  centuries 
that  have  rolled  over  the  earth  since  Cheops  built  his  mag- 
nificent tomb  on  the  great  desert  of  Egypt. 

ASSYRIA. 

Our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  history  is  more  exact  than 
that  of  some  other  ancient  nations,  because  scholars  have 
been  able  to  read  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  for  a  much  longer 
time  than  they  have  read  the  cuneiform  or  arrow-headed 


ASSYRIA. 


21 


inscriptions  which  are  found  in  Assyria,  Babylon,  and 
Persia.  But  we  know  a  great  deal  about  the  ruins  of 
Assyria,  and  especially  of  the  cities  of  Nineveh  and  Khorsa- 
bad,  where  there  are  wonderful  architectural  remains. 


FIG,  15. — GATEWAYS  IN  WALLS  OF  KHORSABAD. 

The  walls  which  surrounded  Nineveh  are  an  important 
part  of  its  ruins.  It  is  said  that  in  the  days  of  the  earliest 
sovereign  these  walls  were  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  so 
broad  that  three  chariots  could  drive  abreast  on  their  top. 
This  story  does  not  seem  unreasonable,  for  all  the  years 
that  have  passed,  and  all  the  dust  and  deposit  of  these  ages 
that  are  collected  about  the  foot  of  the  walls,  still  leave 
some  places  where  they  are  forty-six  feet  high  and  from 
one  to  two  hundred  feet  wide.  The  lower  portion  was  of 
limestone,  and  the  upper  of  sun-dried  bricks  ;  the  blocks  of 
stone  were  neatly  hewn  out  and  smoothly  polished.  The 
walls  surrounded  the  city,  which  was  so  large  that  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand  people  could  live  there, 
and  we  know  that  its  inhabitants  were  very  numerous. 
The  gates  which  opened  through  the  walls  were  surmounted 
by  lofty  towers,  and  it  is  supposed  that  shorter  towers  were 
built  upon  the  walls  between  the  gateways  (Fig.  15). 

The  above  plans  show  the  arrangement  of  gateways 
which  have  been  excavated.  It  seems  that  there  were  four 
separate  gates,  and  between  them  large  chambers  which 


22 


ARCHITECTURE. 


may  have  been  used  by  soldiers  or  guards.  The  two  outer 
gates  were  ornamented  by  sculptured  figures  of  colossal 
bulls  with  human  heads  and  other  strange  designs  ;  but  the 
inner  gates  had  a  plain  finish  of  alabaster  slabs.  It  is 
thought  that  arches  covered  these  gateways  like  some  repre- 
sentations of  gates  which  are  seen  on  Assyrian  bas-re- 
liefs. Within  the  gates  there  is  a  pavement  of  large  slabs, 


FIG.  16. — ENTRANCE  TO  SMALLER  TEMPLE,  NIMRUD 

in  which  the  marks  worn  by  chariot  wheels  are  still  plainly 
seen. 

We  learn  that  the  Assyrians  made  their  religion  a  prom- 
inent part  of  their  lives.  The  inscriptions  of  the  kings 
begin  and  end  with  praises  and  prayers  to  their  gods,  and 
on  all  occasions  religious  worship  is  spoken  of  as  a  principal 
duty.  We  know  that  the  monarchs  devoted  much  care  to 


ASSYRIA. 


the  temples,  and  built  new  ones  continually  ;  but  it  also 
appears  from  the  excavations  that  have  been  made  that 
they  devoted  the  best  of  their  art  and  the  greatest  sum  of 
their  riches  to  the  palaces  of  their  kings.  The  temple  was 
far  less  splendid  than  the  palace  to  which  it  was  attached  as 
a  sort  of  appendage  This  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Assyrian  kings 
received  more  than  the 
monarchs  of  any  other 
ancient  people  divine  hon- 
ors while  still  living  ;  so 
that  the  palace  was  re- 
garded as  the  actual  dwell- 
ing of  a  god.  The  inner 
ornamentation  of  the  tem- 
ples was  confined  to  relig- 
ious subjects  represented 
on  sculptured  slabs  upon 
the  walls,  but  no  large 
proportion  of  the  wall  was 
decorated,  and  the  rest 
was  merely  plastered  and 
painted  in  set  figures. 
The  gateways  and  en- 
trances were  guarded  by 

sacred    figures  of  colossal          FlG  I7._PAVEMENT  SLAB  FROM 
bulls,    or    hons    (Fig.    16),  KOYUNJIK. 

and  covered  with  inscrip- 
tions ;  there  was  a  similarity  between  the  palace  entrances 
and  those  of  the  temples. 

The  palaces  were  always  built  on  artificial  platforms, 
which  were  made  of  solid  brick  or  stone,  or  else  the  outside 
walls  of  the  platforms  were  built  of  these  substances  and 
the  middle  part  filled  in  with  dirt  and  rubbish.  Sometimes 
the  platforms,  which  were  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high, 


24  ARCHITECTURE. 

were  in  terraces  and  flights  of  steps  led  up  and  down  from 
one  to  another.  It  also  happened  that  more  than  one 
palace  was  erected  on  the  same  platform  ;  thus  the  size  and 
form  of  the  platforms  was  much  varied,  and  when  palaces 
were  enlarged  the  platforms  were  changed  also,  and  their 
shape  was  often  very  irregular.  The  tops  of  the  platforms 
were  paved  with  stone  slabs  or  bricks,  the  last  being  some- 
times as  much  as  two  feet  square  ;  the  pavements  were 
frequently  ornamented  with  artistic  designs  (Fig.  17),  and 
inscriptions  are  also  found  upon  them. 

At  the  lower  part  of  the  platform  there  was  a  terrace  on 
which  several  small  buildings  were  usually  placed,  and  near 
by  was  an  important  gateway,  or,  more  properly,  a  propy- 
laeum,  through  which  every  one  must  pass  who  entered  the 
palace  from  the  city.  The  next  cut  (Fig.  18)  shows  one 
of  these  grand  entrances  decorated  with  the  human-headed 
bulls  and  the  figure  of  what  is  believed  to  be  the  Assyrian 
Hercules,  who  is  most  frequently  represented  in  the  act  of 


FIG.  18. — REMAINS  OF  PROFYUEUM,  OR  OUTER  GATEWAY,  KHORSABAD. 

strangling  a  lion.  Much  rich  ornament  was  lavished  on 
these  portals,  and  the  entrance  space  was  probably  pro- 
tected by  an  arch. 


ASSYRIA. 


Below  these  portals,  quite  down  on  a  level  with  the  city, 
there  were  outer  gateways,  through  which  one  entered  a 
court  in  front  of  the  ascent  to  the  lower  terrace. 


FIG.  19.— PLAN  OF  PALACE,  KHORSABAD. 

The  principal  apartments  of  the  palaces  were  the  courts, 
the  grand  halls,  and  the  small,  private  chambers.  The  fine 
palaces  had  several  courts  each  ;  they  varied  from  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  by  ninety  feet,  to  two  hundred  and  fifty 
by  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  size,  and  were  paved  in  the 
same  way  as  the  platforms  outside  (Fig.  19). 

The  grand  halls  were  the  finest  portions  of  these  splen- 
did edifices  ;  here  was  the  richest  ornament,  and  the  walls 
were  lined  with  sculptured  slabs,  while  colossal  bulls,  winged 
genii,  and  other  figures  were  placed  at  the  entrances.  Upon 
the  slabs  the  principal  events  in  the  lives  of  the  monarchs 
were  represented,  as  well  as  their  portraits,  and  religious 


26 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  20. — RELIEF  FROM  KHORSABAD.     A  TEMPLE. 


ceremonies,  battles,  and  many  incidents  of  interest  to  the 
nation  (Fig.  20). 

The  slabs  rested  on  the  paved  floors  of  the  halls  and 
reached  a  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  ;  above  them  the 
walls  were  of  burnt  brick,  sometimes  in  brilliant  colors  ;  the 
whole  height  of  the  walls  was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet. 
The  smaller  chambers  surrounded  these  grand  halls,  and  the 
number  of  rooms  was  very  large  ;  in  one  palace  which  has 
been  but  partially  explored  there  are  sixty-eight  apart- 
ments, and  it  is  not  probable  that  any  Assyrian  palace  had 
less  than  forty  or  fifty  rooms  on  its  ground  floor.  Of  all 
the  palaces  which  have  been  examined  that  of  Khorsabad 
is  best  known  and  can  be  most  exactly  described.  It  is 
believed  that  Sargon,  a  son  of  Sennacherib,  built  it,  and  it 
is  very  splendid. 

After  entering  at  the  great  portal  one  passes  through 
various  courts  and  corridors  ;  these  are  all  adorned  with 
sculptures  such  as  have  been  described  above  ;  at  length 


ASSYRIA.  27 

one  reaches  the  great  inner  court  of  the  palace,  which  was  a 
square  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  size.  This 
court  had  buildings  on  two  sides,  and  the  other  sides  ex- 
tended to  the  edge  of  the  terrace  of  the  platform  on  which 
the  palace  was  built,  and  commanded  broad  views  of  the 
open  country.  On  one  side  the  buildings  contained  the  less 
important  apartments  of  the  officers  of  the  court  ;  the 
grand  state  apartments  were  on  the  other  side.  There  were 
ten  of  these  at  Khorsabad  ;  five  were  large  halls,  four  were 
smaller  chambers,  and  one  a  long  and  narrow  room.  Three 
of  the  large  halls  were  connected  with  one  another,  and  their 
decorations  were  by  far  the  most  splendid  of  any  in  the 
palace.  In  one  of  them  the  sculptures  represented  the  king 
superintending  the  reception  and  chastisement  of  prisoners, 
and  is  called  the  "  Hall  of  Punishment."  The  middle  hall 
has  no  distinguishing  feature,  but  the  third  opened  into  the 
"  Temple  Court,"  on  one  side  of  which  the  small  temple 
was  situated.  The  lower  sculptures  of  the  middle  and  third 
halls  represented  the  military  history  of  Sargon,  who  is 
seen  in  all  sorts  of  soldier-like  positions  and  occupations  ; 
some  of  the  upper  sculptures  represent  religious  ceremonies. 

On  one  side  of  the  Temple  Court  there  were  several 
chambers  called  Priests'  Rooms,  but  the  temple  itself  and 
the  portions  of  the  palace  connected  with  it  are  not  as  well 
preserved  as  the  other  parts,  and  have  nothing  about  them 
to  interest  us  in  their  study. 

The  palaces  of  Nineveh  are  much  less  perfect  than  the 
palace-temples  of  Thebes,  and  cannot  be  described  with  as 
much  exactness.  There  is  no  wall  of  them  still  standing 
more  than  sixteen  feet  above  the  ground,  and  we  do  not 
even  know  whether  they  had  upper  stories  or  not,  or  how 
they  were  lighted — in  a  word,  nothing  is  positively  known 
about  them  above  the  ground  floors,  and  it  is  very  strange 
that  the  sculptures  nowhere  represent  a  royal  residence. 
But  what  we  do  know  of  the  Assyrians  proves  that  they 


28  ARCHITECTURE. 

equalled  and  perhaps  excelled  all  other  Oriental  nations  as 
architects  and  designers,  as  well  as  in  other  departments  of 
art  and  industry. 


FIG.  21. — RESTORATION  OF  AN  ASSYRIAN  PALACE. 

This  representation  of  an  Assyrian  palace  (Fig.  21)  is  a 
restoration,  as  it  is  called,  being  made  up  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  remains  and  such  facts  as  can  be  learned  from  bas-re- 
liefs, and  cannot  be  wholly  unlike  the  dwellings  of  the  king- 
gods.  It  is  pleasing  in  general  appearance,  and  for  lightness 
and  elegance  is  even  to  be  preferred  to  Egyptian  architec- 
ture, though  it  is  far  inferior  in  dignity  and  impressiveness. 

The  Assyrians  knew  the  use  of  both  column  and  arch, 
but  never  developed  either  to  any  extent.  They  also 
employed  the  obelisk,  and  it  is  noticeable  that  instead  of 
terminating  it  with  a  pyramid,  as  was  the  case  in  Egypt, 


BABYLON.  -  29 

they  capped  it  with  the  diminishing  terraces,  which  is  the 
fundamental  form  which  underlies  all  the  architecture  of  the 
country,  as  the  smooth  pyramid  is  the  most  prominent 
element  in  the  architecture  of  Egypt. 

BABYLON. 

It  is  probable  that  Babylon  was  the  largest  and  finest  cf 
all  the  ancient  cities.  The  walls  which  surrounded  it, 
together  with  its  hanging  gardens,  were  reckoned  among 
the  "  seven  wonders  of  the  world  "  by  the  ancients.  Its 
walls  were  pierced  by  a  hundred  gates  and  surmounted  by 
two  hundred  and  fifty  towers  ;  these  towers  added  much  to 
the  grand  appearance  of  the  city  ;  they  were  not  very  high 
above  the  walls,  and  were  probably  used  as  guard-rooms  by 
soldiers. 

The  River  Euphrates  ran  through  the  city.  Brick  walls 
were  built  upon  its  banks,  and  every  street  which  led  to  the 
river  had  a  gateway  in  these  walls  which  opened  to  a 
sloping  landing  which  extended  down  to  the  water's  edge  ; 
boats  were  kept  at  these  landings  for  those  who  wished  to 
cross  the  stream.  There  was  also  a  foot-bridge  across  the 
river  that  could  be  used  only  by  day,  and  one  writer, 
Diodorus,  declares  that  a  tunnel  also  existed  which  joined 
the  two  sides  of  the  river,  and  was  fifteen  feet  wide  and 
twelve  feet  high  in  the  inside. 

The  accounts  of  the  "  Hanging  Gardens"  make  it  seem 
that  they  resembled  an  artificial  terraced  mountain  built 
upon  arches  of  masonry  and  covered  with  earth,  in  which 
grew  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers.  It  is  said  by  some  writers 
that  this  mountain  was  at  least  seventy-five  feet  high,  and 
occupied  a  square  of  four  acres  ;  others  say  that  in  its 
highest  part  it  reached  three  hundred  feet  ;  but  all  agree 
that  it  was  a  wonderful  work  and  very  beautiful. 

In  the  interior  of  the  structure  machinery  was  concealed 


3C|  ARCHITECTURE. 

which  raised  water  from  the  Euphrates  and  filled  a  reservoir 
at  the  summit,  from  which  it  was  taken  to  moisten  the 
earth  and  nourish  the  plants.  Flights  of  steps  led  up  to  the 
top,  and  on  the  way  there  were  entrances  to  fine  apartments 
where  one  could  rest.  These  rooms,  built  in  the  walls 
which  supported  the  structure,  were  cool  and  pleasant,  and 
afforded  fine  views  of  the  city  and  its  surroundings.  The 
whole  effect  of  the  gardens  when  seen  from  a  distance  was 
that  of  a  wooded  pyramid.  It  seems  a  pity  that  it  should 
have  been  called  a  "  Hanging  Garden,"  since,  when  one 
knows  how  it  was  built,  this  name  is  strangely  unsuitable, 
and  carries  a  certain  disappointment  with  it. 

The  accounts  of  the  origin  of  this  garden  are  interesting. 
One  of  them  says  that  it  was  made  by  Semiramis,  a  queen 
who  was  famous  for  her  prowess  as  a  warrior,  for  having 
conquered  some  cities  and  built  others,  for  having  dammed 
up  the  River  Euphrates,  and  performed  many  marvellous 
and  heroic  deeds.  It  is  not  probable  that  any  woman  ever 
did  all  the  wonders  which  are  attributed  to  Semiramis,  but 
we  love  to  read  these  tales  of  the  old,  old  time,  and  it  is 
important  for  us  to  know  them  since  they  are  often  referred 
to  in  books  and  in  conversation. 

Another  account  relates  that  the  gardens  were  made  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  please  his  Median  queen,  Amytis,  be- 
cause the  country  round  about  Babylon  seemed  so  barren 
and  desolate  to  her,  and  she  longed  for  the  lovely  scenery 
of  her  native  land. 

What  we  have  said  will  show  that  the  Babylonians  were 
advanced  in  the  science  of  such  works  as  come  more  prop- 
erly under  the  head  of  engineering  ;  their  palaces  were 
also  fine,  and  their  dwelling-houses  lofty  ;  they  had  three 
or  four  stories,  and  were  covered  by  vaulted  roofs.  But 
the  Babylonians,  like  the  Egyptians,  lavished  their  best  art 
upon  their  temples.  The  temple  was  built  in  the  most 
prominent  position  and  magnificently  adorned.  It  was 


BABYLON.  3 1 

usually  within  a  walled  inclosure,  and  the  most  important 
temple  at  Babylon,  called  that  of  Belus,  is  said  to  have  had 
an  area  of  thirty  acres  devoted  to  it.  The  chief  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  a  Babylonish  temple  was  a  tower  built  in 
stages  (Fig.  22). 


FIG.  22. — ELEVATION  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SEVEN  SPHERES  AT  BORSIPPA. 

The  number  of  the  stages  varied,  eight  being  the  largest. 
At  the  summit  of  the  tower  there  was  a  chapel  or  an  altar, 
and  the  ascent  was  by  steps  or  an  inclined  plane  which 
wound  around  the  sides  of  the  tower.  The  Babylonians 
were  famous  astronomers,  and  it  is  believed  that  these 
towers  were  used  as  observatories  as  well  as  for  places  of 
worship.  At  the  base  of  the  tower  there  was  a  chapel  for 
the  use  of  those  who  could  not  ascend  the  height,  and  near 
by,  in  the  open  air,  different  altars  were  placed,  for  the 
worship  of  the  Babylonians  included  the  offering  of  sacri- 
fices. 

Very  ancient  writers  describe  the  riches  of  the  shrines  at 
Babylon  as  being  of  a  value  beyond  our  belief.  They  tell 
of  colossal  images  of  the  gods  of  solid  gold  ;  of  enormous 
lions  in  the  same  precious  metal  ;  of  serpents  of  silver, 
each  of  thirty  talents'  weight  (a  talent  equalled  about  two 


32  ARCHITECTURE. 

thousand  dollars  of  our  money),  and  of  golden  tables,  bowls, 
and  drinking-cups,  besides  magnificent  offerings  of  many 
kinds  which  faithful  worshippers  had  devoted  to  the  gods. 
These  great  treasures  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians 
when  they  conquered  Babylon. 

The  Birs-i-Nimrud  has  been  more  fully  examined  than 
any  other  Babylonish  ruin,  and  a  description  of  it  can  be 
given  with  a  good  degree  of  correctness.  As  it  now  stands, 
every  brick  in  it  bears  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ;  it  is 
believed  that  he  repaired  or  rebuilt  it,  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  think  that  he  changed  its  plan.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  it  is  a  very  interesting  ruin  (Fig.  23).  It  was  a  tem- 
ple raised  on  a  platform  and  built  in  seven  stages  ;  these 
stages  represented  the  seven  spheres  in  which  the  seven 
planets  moved  (according  to  the  ancient  astronomy),  and  a 
particular  color  was  assigned  to  each  planet,  and  the  stages 
colored  according  to  this  idea.  That  of  the  sun  was  golden  ; 
the  moon,  silver  ;  Saturn,  black  ;  Jupiter,  orange  ;  Mars, 
red  ;  Venus,  pale  yellow,  and  Mercury,  deep  blue. 

It  is  curious  to  know  how  the  various  colors  were 
obtained.  The  lower  stage,  representing  Saturn,  was  cov- 
ered with  bitumen  ;  that  of  Jupiter  was  faced  with  bricks 
burned  to  an  orange  color  ;  that  of  Mars  was  made  of  bricks 
from  a  bright  red  clay  and  half  burned,  so  that  they  had  a 
blood-red  tint  ;  the  stage  dedicated  to  the  sun  was  probably 
covered  with  thin  plates  of  gold  ;  that  of  Venus  had  pale 
yellow  bricks  ;  that  of  Mercury  was  subjected  to  intense 
heat  after  it  was  erected,  and  this  produced  vitrification  and 
gave  it  a  blue  color  ;  and  the  stage  of  the  moon  was  coated 
in  shining  white  metals. 

Thus  the  tower  rose  up,  all  glowing  in  colors  and  tints 
as  cunningly  arranged  as  if  produced  by  Nature  herself. 
The  silvery,  shining  band  was  probably  the  highest,  and 
had  the  effect  of  mingling  with  the  bright  sky  above.  We 
can  scarcely  understand  how  glorious  the  effect  must  have 


BABYLON. 


33 


been,  and  when  we  try  to  imagine  it,  and  then  think  of  the 
present  wretched  condition  of  these  ruins,  it  gives  great 
force  to  the  prophecies  concerning  Babylon  which  foretold 
that  her  broad  walls  should  be  utterly  broken  down,  her 
gates  burned  with  fire,  and  the  golden  city  swept  with  the 
besom  of  destruction. 


FlG.   23.— BlRS-I-NlMRUD,    NEAR    BABYLON. 

We  know  so  little  of  the  arrangement  of  the  palaces  of 
Babylon  that  we  cannot  speak  of  them  in  detail.  They 
differed  from  those  of  Assyria  in  two  important  points  : 
they  are  of  burnt  bricks  instead  of  those  dried  in  the  sun 
which  the  Assyrians  used,  and  at  Babylon  in  the  decoration 
of  the  walls  colored  pictures  upon  the  brick-work  took  the 


34  ARCHITECTURE. 

place  of  the  alabaster  bas-reliefs  which  were  found  in  the 
palaces  of  Nineveh. 

These  paintings  represented  hunting  scenes,  battles,  and 
other  important  events,  and  were  alternated  with  portions 
of  the  wall  upon  which  were  inscriptions  painted  in  white 
on  a  blue  ground,  or  spaces  with  a  regular  pattern  of 
rosettes  or  some  fixed  design  in  geometrical  figures.  A 
sufficient  number  of  these  decorations  have  been  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylon  to  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  this  was 
the  customary  finish  of  the  walls.  We  also  know  that  the 
houses  of  Babylon  were  three  or  four  stories  in  height,  but 
were  rudely  constructed  and  indicate  an  inferior  style  of 
domestic  architecture. 

PERSIA. 

The  Persians  were  the  pupils  of  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians in  Art,  Learning,  and  Science,  and  they  learned 
their  lessons  so  well  that  they  built  magnificent  palaces  and 
tombs.  Temples  seem  to  have  been  unimportant  to  them, 
and  we  know  nothing  of  any  Persian  temple  remains  that 
would  attract  the  attention  of  travellers  or  scholars. 

The  four  most  important  Persian  palaces  of  which  we 
have  any  good  degree  of  knowledge  are  that  of  Ecbatana, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  very  imperfect  ;  a  second  at  Susa,  of 
which  the  arrangement  is  known  ;  a  third  at  Persepolis, 
which  is  not  well  enough  preserved  for  any  exact  descrip- 
tion to  be  given  ;  and  a  fourth,  the  so-called  Great  Palace, 
near  Persepolis,  in  which  the  latest  Persian  sovereigns  lived. 
This  magnificent  palace  was  burned  by  Alexander  the  Great 
before  he  or  his  soldiers  had  seen  its  splendor.  The  story 
is  that  he  made  a  feast  at  which  Thais,  a  beautiful  and 
wicked  woman,  appeared,  and  by  her  arts  gained  such 
power  over  Alexander  that  he  consented  to  her  proposal  to 
fire  the  palace,  and  the  king,  wearing  a  crown  of  flowers 


PERSIA.  35 

/upon  his  head,  seized  a  torch  and  himselt  executed  the 
dreadful  deed,  while  all  the  company  followed  him  with 
acclamations,  singing,  and  wild  shouts.  At  last  they  sur- 
rounded and  danced  about  the  dreadful  conflagration. 

The  poet  Dryden  wrote  an  ode  upon  "  Alexander's 
Feast"  in  1697  which  has  a  world-wide  reputation.  I  quote 
a  few  lines  from  it  : 

"  'Twas  at  the  royal  feast  for  Persia  won 

By  Philip's  warlike  son  : 
Aloft,  in  awful  state, 
The  godlike  hero  sate 

On  his  imperial  throne  ; 
His  valiant  peers  were  placed  around, 
Their  brows  with  roses  and  with  myrtles  bound 
(So  should  desert  in  arms  be  crowned)  ; 

The  lovely  Thais  by  his  side 

Sate,  like  a  blooming  Eastern  bride, 
In  flower  of  youth  and  beauty's  pride. 

Happy,  happy,  happy  pair  ! 
None  but  the  brave, 
None  but  the  brave, 
None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair. 

*'  Behold  how  they  toss  their  torches  on  high, 

How  they  point  to  the  Persian  abodes, 
And  glittering  temples  of  their  hostile  gods  ! 
The  princes  applaud  with  a  furious  joy, 
And  the  king  seized  a  flambeau  with  zeal  to  destroy  ; 
Thais  led  the  way 
To  light  him  to  his  prey, 
And,  like  another  Helen,  fired  another  Troy." 

Much  study  and  time  has  been  given  to  the  examination 
of  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  and  the  whole  arrangement  of  the 
city  has  been  discovered  and  is  made  plain  to  the  student 
of  these  matters  by  means  of  the  many  charts,  plans,  and 
photographs  of  it  which  now  exist.  I  shall  try  to  tell  you 
something  of  the  Great  Palace  of  Persepolis,  and  the  other 
palaces  near  it  and  on  the  platform  with  it,  for  the  Persians, 
like  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  built  their  palaces  upon 


ARCHITECTURE. 


platforms.  This  one  of  which  we  speak  was  distinct  from 
the  city,  but  quite  near  it,  and  is  in  almost  perfect  condi- 
tion. 

It  is  composed  of  large  masses  of  hewn  stone  held 
together  by  clamps  of  iron  or  lead.  Many  of  the  blocks  in 
this  platform  wall  are  so  large  as  to  make  their  removal 
from  the  quarries  and  their  elevation  to  the  required  height 
a  difficult  mechanical  task,  which  could  only  have  been  per- 
formed by  skilled  laborers  with  good  means  for  carrying  on 

^  their    work.      The    wall 

was  not  laid  in  regular 
blocks,  but  was  like  this 
plate  (Fig.  24). 

The  platform  was 
not  of  the  same  height 
in  all  its  parts,  and  seems 
to  have  been  in  several 
terraces,  three  of  which 
can  still  be  seen.  The 
buildings  were  on  the 
upper  terrace,  which  is 
about  forty- five  feet 
above  the  plain  and 

very  large  ;  it  is  seven  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long  and 
four  hundred  feet  wide.  The  staircases  are  an  important 
feature  of  these  ruins,  and  when  all  the  palaces  were  in  per- 
fection these  broad  steps,  with  their  landings  and  splendid 
decorations,  must  have  made  a  noble  and  magnificent  effect. 
The  ascent  of  the  staircases  was  so  gradual  and  easy  that 
men  went  up  and  down  on  horseback,  and  travellers  now 
ascend  and  descend  in  this  way. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  staircases  of  Persepolis 
were  the  finest  that  were  ever  built  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  and  on  some  of  them  ten  horsemen  could  ride 
abreast.  The  broadest,  or  platform  staircase,  is  entirely 


FIG.  24. — MASONRY  OF  GREAT  PLATFORM, 
PERSEPOLIS. 


PERSIA. 


37 


without  ornament  ;  another  which  leads  from  the  platform 
up  to  the  central  or  upper  terrace  is  so  elaborately  deco- 
rated that  it  appears  to  be  covered  with  sculptures.  There 
are  colossal  representations  of  lions,  bulls,  Persian  guards- 
men, rows  of  trees,  and  continuous  processions  of  smaller 
figures.  In  some  parts  the  sculptures  represent  various 
nations  bringing  trib- 
utes to  the  Persian 
monarch  ;  in  other 
parts  all  the  different 
officers  of  the  court 
and  those  of  the  army 
are  seen,  and  the 
latter  appear  to  be 
guarding  the  stairs. 
(See  Fig.  25.) 

In  a  conspicuous 
position  on  this  or- 
namental staircase 
there  are  three  slabs  ; 
on  two  there  is  no 
design  />f  any  sort  ; 
on  the  third  an  in- 
scription says  that 
this  was  the  work  of 
"Xerxes,  the  Great 
King,  the  King  of  Kings,  the  son  of  King  Darius,  the 
Achaemenian."  This  inscription  is  in  the  Persian  tongue, 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  the  intention  to  repeat  it  on 
the  slabs  which  are  left  plain  in  some  other  languages,  so 
that  it  could  easily  be  read  by  those  of  different  nations ; 
it  was  customary  with  the  ancients  to  repeat  inscriptions  in 
this  way. 

The  other  staircases  of  this  great  platform  are  all  more 
or   less   decorated    with   sculptures  and   resemble  that  de- 


FIG.  25. — PARAPET  WALL  OF  STAIRCASE, 
PERSEPOLIS  (RESTORED). 


38  ARCHITECTURE. 

scribed  ;  they  lead  to  the  different  palaces,  of  which  there 
are  three.  The  palaces  are  those  of  Darius,  Xerxes,  and 
Artaxerxes  Ochus,  and  besides  these  there  are  two  great 
pillared  halls  ;  one  of  these  is  called  the  "  Hall  of  One 
Hundred  Columns,"  and  the  other  Chehl  Minar,  or  the 
"  Great  Hall  of  Audience." 

This  view  of  the  palace  of  Darius  gives  an  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  all  these  buildings.     A  description  of  them 


FIG.  26. — RUINS  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  DARIUS,  PERSEPOLIS. 


would  be  only  a  wordy  repetition  of  the  characteristics  of 
one  apartment  and  hall  after  another,  and  I  shall  leave 
them  to  speak  of  the  magnificent  halls  which  are  the  glory 
of  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  and  the  wonders  of  the  world  to 
those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  architectural  monuments 
of  the  Turkish,  Greek,  Roman,  Moorish,  and  Christian 
nations.  (See  Fig.  26.) 

The  Hall  of  a  Hundred  Columns  was  very  splendid,  as 
one  may  judge  from  this  picture  of  its  gateway  (Fig.  27)  ; 
but  the  Chehl  Minar,  or  Great  Hall  of  Audience,  which  is 


PERSIA.  39 

also  called  the  Hall  of  Xerxes,  was  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  these  edifices.  Its  ruins  occupy  a  space  of  almost  three 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  and  two  hundred  and  forty- 
six  feet  in  width,  and  consist  principally  of  four  different 
kinds  of  columns.  One  portion  of  this  hall  was  arranged 
in  a  square,  in  which  there  were  six  rows  of  six  pillars  each, 


FIG.  27. — GATEWAY  OF  HALL  OF  A  HUNDRED  COLUMNS. 

and  on  three  sides  of  this  square  there  were  magnificent 
porches,  in  each  of  which  there  were  twelve  columns  ;  so 
that  the  number  of  pillars  in  the  square  was  thirty-six,  and 
that  of  those  in  the  three  porches  was  the  same.  These 
porches  stood  out  boldly  from  the  main  building  and  were 
grand  in  their  effect. 

The  columns  which  remain  ;n  various  parts  of  this  haii 


ARCHITECTURE. 


are  so  high  that  it  is 
thought  that  they  must 
originally  have  measured 
sixty-four  feet  through- 
out the  whole  building. 


FIG.  28. — DOUBLE  HORNED  LION  CAPITAL. 

The  capitals  of  the  pillars  were  of 
three  kinds  :  the  double  Horned 
Lion  capital  (Fig.  28)  was  used  in 
the  eastern  porch,  and  was  very 
simple  ;  in  the  western  porch  was 
the  double  Bull  capital,  which  cor- 
responded to  the  first  in  size  and 
general  form,  the  difference  being 
only  in  the  shape  of  the  animal. 

The  north  porch  faced  the  great 
sculptured   staircase,   and  was  the 
real  front  of  the  hall.     On  this  side 
the  columns  were  much  ornament- 
ed. The  follow- 


FIG.  29. — COMPLEX  CAPITAL 

AND  BASE  OF  PILLARS, 

PERSEPOLIS. 


FIG.  30. — BASE  OF 

ANOTHER  PILLAR, 

PERSEPOLIS. 


ing  plates  show 
the  entire  de- 
sign of  them, 
and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the 
bases  were  very  beautiful  (Figs.  29  and 

30). 

The  capitals  have  three  distinct  parts  ; 
at  the  bottom  is  a  sort  of  bed  of  lotus 
leaves,  part  of  which  are  turned  down, 


PERSIA. 


and  the  others  standing  up  form  a  kind  of  cup  on  which  the 
next  section  above  rests.  The  middle  section  is  fluted  and 
has  spiral  scrolls  or  volutes,  such  as  are  seen  in  Ionic  cap- 
itals, only  here  they  are  in  a  perpendicular  position  instead 
of  the  customary  horizontal  one.  The  upper  portion  had 
the  same  double  figures  of  bulls  as  were  on  the  columns  of 
the  western  colonnade.  The  decoration  on  the  bases  was 
made  of  two  or  three  rows  of  hanging  lotus  leaves,  some 
round  and  others  pointed  in  form.  The  shafts  of  these 
pillars  were  formed 
of  different  blocks 
of  stone  joined  by 
iron  cramps  ;  they 
were  cut  in  exact 
and  regular  flut- 
ings,  numbering 
from  forty-eight  to 
fifty-two  on  each 
pillar. 

This  plan  of  the 
Hall  of  Audience 
will  help  you  to 
understand  its  ar- 
rangement more 
clearly  (Fig.  31). 

The  square  with 

the  thirty-six  columns,  and  the  three  porches  with  twelve 
columns  each,  are  distinctly  marked.  The  most  ornamental 
pillars  were  on  the  side  with  the  entrance  or  gateway.  The 
two  small  rooms  on  the  ends  of  the  main  portico  may  have 
been  guard-rooms. 

We  can  only  regret  that,  while  we  know  certain  things 
about  this  hall,  there  is  still  much  of  which  we  know  noth- 
ing. However,  there  are  many  theories  concerning  it. 
Some  authorities  believe  that  it  was  roofed,  while  others. 


FIG.  31. — GROUND  PLAN  (RESTORED)  OF  HALL 
OF  XERXES,  PERSEPOLIS. 


42  ARCHITECTURE. 

think  that  it  was  open  and  protected  only  by  curtains  and 
hangings,  of  which  the  Persians  made  much  use.  As  we 
cannot  know  positively  about  it,  and  Persepolis  was  the 
spring  residence  of  the  Persian  kings,  it  is  pleasant  to  fancy 
that  this  splendid  pillared  hall  was  a  summer  throne-room, 
having  beautiful  hangings  that  could  be  drawn  aside  at  will, 
admitting  all  the  spicy  breezes  of  that  sunny  land,  and 
realizing  the  description  of  the  palace  of  Shushan  in  the 
Book  of  Esther,  which  says,  "  In  the  court  of  the  garden 
of  the  king's  palace;  where  were  white,  green,  and  blue 
hangings,  fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to 
silver  rings  and  pillars  of  marble  ;  the  beds  were  of  gold 
and  silver,  upon  a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue,  and  white, 
and  black  marble." 

Here  the  king  could  receive  all  those  who  sought  him  ; 
the  glorious  view  of  the  plains  of  Susa  and  Persepolis,  the 
breezes  which  came  to  him  laden  with  the  odors  of  the 
choicest  flowers  would  soothe  him  to  content,  and  realize 
his  full  desire  for  that  deep  breath  from  open  air  which 
gives  a  sense  of  freedom  and  power.  We  know  that  no 
Oriental,  be  he  monarch  or  slave,  de- 
sires to  live  beneath  a  roof  or  within 
closed  doors. 

The  column  was  in  Persia  developed 
with  a  good  deal  of  originality  and 
much  artistic  feeling  ;  and  one  fine 
base  of  the  time  of  Cyrus  is  especially 
interesting  for  its  close  resemblance  to 

the  base  of  certain  Ionic  pillars  after- 
FIG.  32. — PART  OF  A  ,          t     •     /-  /T--  \ 

BASE  OF  THE  TIME  OF      ward  made  m  Greece  (FlS'  32). 
CYRUS,  PASARGAD^E.  The  tombs  of  the  royal  Persians  were 

usually  hewn   out  of   the  solid  rock  ; 

the  tomb  of  Cyrus,  only,  resembles  a  little  house  ;  this  plate 
gives  a  representation  of  it  (Fig.  33). 

The  one  apartment  in  this  tomb  is  about  eleven  feet 


t 


PERSIA. 


43 


FIG.  33. — THE  TOMB  OF  CYRUS. 


long,  seven  feet  broad,  and  seven  feet  high  ;  it  has  no 
window,  and  a  low,  narrow  doorway  in  one  of  the  end  walls 
is  the  only  entrance  to  it.  Ancient  writers  say  that  the 
body  of  Cyrus  in  a  golden  coffin  was  deposited  in  this 
tomb. 

Seven  other  tombs  have  been  explored  ;  they  are  exca- 
vations in  the  sides  of  the  mountains  high  enough  to  be 
prominent  objects  to  the  sight,  and  yet  difficult  of  approach. 
The  fronts  of  these  tombs  are  much  ornamented,  and  the 
internal  chambers  are  large  ;  there  are  recesses  for  the 
burial-cases,  and  these  vary  in  number,  some  having  only 
space  for  three  bodies.  The  tomb  of  Darius  had  three 
recesses,  in  each  of  which  there  were  three  burial-cases  ;  but 
this  was  an  unusually  large  number.  The  tombs  near 
Persepolis  are  the  finest  which  have  yet  been  examined. 

The  most  noticeable  characteristic  of  Persian  architect- 
ure is  its  regularity.  The  plans  used  are  simple,  and  only 
straight  lines  occur  in  them  ;  thus,  all  the  angles  are  right 
angles.  The  columns  are  regularly  placed,  and  the  two 


44  ARCHITECTURE. 

sides  of  an  apartment  or  building  correspond  to  each  other. 
The  magnificent  staircases,  and  the  abundance  of  elegant 
columns  which  have  been  called  "  groves  of  pillars"  by 
some  writers,  produced  a  grand  and  dignified  effect.  The 
huge  size  of  the  blocks  of  stone  used  by  Persian  builders 
gives  an  impression  of  great  power  in  those  who  planned 
their  use,  and  demands  for  them  the  respect  of  all  thought- 
ful students  of  these  edifices. 

The  faults  of  this  architecture  lay  in  the  narrow  door- 
ways, the  small  number  of  passages,  and  the  clumsy  thick- 
ness of  the  walls.  But  these  faults  are  insignificant  in 
comparison  with  its  beauties,  and  it  is  all  the  more  to  be 
admired  that  it  was  invented  by  the  Persians,  not  copied 
from  other  nations,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  Greeks 
profited  by  its  study  to  improve  their  own  style,  and 
through  this  study  substituted  lightness  and  elegance  for 
the  clumsy  and  heavy  effect  of  the  earliest  Grecian  archi- 
tecture. 

JUDEA. 

There  is  so  much  of  religious,  historical,  romantic,  and 
poetical  association  with  the  land  of  Judea,  that  it  is  a  dis- 
appointment to  know  that  there  are  no  remains  of  Judean 
architecture  from  which  to  study  the  early  art-history  of 
that  country  ;  it  is  literally  true  that  nothing  remains. 

The  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  Baalbec,  Palmyra,  Petra,  and 
places  beyond  the  Jordan  are  not  Jewish,  but  Roman  re- 
mains. The  most  interesting  remnant  is  a  passage  and 
gateway  which  belonged  to  the  great  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
This  passage  is  situated  beneath  the  platform  of  the  temple  ; 
it  is  called  "The  Gateway  Huldah."  The  width  of  it  is 
forty-one  feet,  and  at  one  point  there  is  a  magnificent  pillar, 
called  a  monolith,  because  it  is  cut  from  a  single  stone. 
This  pillar  supports  four  arches,  which  divide  the  passage 
into  as  many  compartments,  each  one  of  which  has  a  flat 


JUDEA. 


45 


dome.  On  these  domes  or  roofs  there  were  formerly 
beautiful  ornamental  designs,  one  of  which  remains,  and  is 
like  this  picture  (Fig.  34).  Its  combination  of  Oriental  and 
Roman  design  proves  that  it  cannot  be  very  old,  but  must 
have  been  made  after  the  influence  of  the  Romans  had  been 
felt  in  Judea. 


FIG.  34. — ROOF  OF  ONE  OF  THE  COMPARTMENTS  OF  THE  GATE  HULDAH. 


Since  the  excavations  in  Assyria,  and  through  the  use  of 
the  knowledge  obtained  there  and  in  other  ancient  countries, 
and  by  comparing  this  with  the  descriptions  of  the  Bible 
and  the  works  of  Josephus,  some  antiquarians  have  made 
plans  and  drawings  of  what  they  believe  that  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  must  have  been  at  the  time  of  the  Crucifixion. 
The  result  of  this  work  has  little  interest,  for  two  reasons  : 
first,  because  we  do  not  know  that  it  is  correct  ;  second, 
because  even  at  the  time  to  which  it  is  ascribed,  it  was  not 
the  ancient  temple  of  Solomon.  That  had  been  destroyed, 
and  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Captivity,  was 
rebuilt  ;  again,  it  had  been  changed  and  restored  by  the 
Romans  under  Herod,  so  that  it  had  little  in  reality,  or  by 
way  of  association,  to  give  it  the  sacred  and  intense  interest 


46  ARCHITECTURE. 

for  us  which  would  belong  to  the  true,  ancient  temple  at 
Jerusalem. 

"  Lost  Salem  of  the  Jews,  great  sepulchre. 

Of  all  profane  and  of  all  holy  things, 
Where  Jew  and  Turk  and  Gentile  yet  concur 

To  make  thee  what  thou  art,  thy  history  brings 

Thoughts  mixed  of  joy  and  woe.     The  whole  earth  rings 
With  the  sad  truth  which  He  has  prophesied, 

Who  would  have  sheltered  with  his  holy  wings 
Thee  and  thy  children.     You  his  power  defied  ; 
You  scourged  him  while  he  lived,  and  mocked  him  as  he  died  I 

"  There  is  a  star  in  the  untroubled  sky, 

That  caught  the  first  light  which  its  Maker  made, — 
It  led  the  hymn  of  other  orbs  on  high  ; 

^Twill  shine  when  all  the  fires  of  heaven  shall  fade. 

Pilgrims  at  Salem's  porch,  be  that  your  aid  ! 
For  it  has  kept  its  watch  on  Palestine  ! 

Look  to  its  holy  Ught,  nor  be  dismayed, 
Though  broken  is  each  consecrated  shrine, 
Though  crushed  and  ruined  all  which  men  have  called  divine." 


GREECE. 

The  earliest  history  of  Greece  is  lost  in  what  we  may 
call  the  Age  of  Legend.  From  that  period  have  come  to 
us  such  marvellous  stories  of  gods  and  goddesses,  and  all 
sorts  of  wonderful  happenings  and  doings,  that  even  the 
most  serious  and  wise  scholars  can  learn  little  about  it,  and 
it  remains  to  all  alike  a  kind  of  delightful  fairy-land. 

Back  to  that  remote  age  one  can  send  his  fancy  and 
imagination  to  feast  upon  the  tales  of  wondrous  bravery, 
passionate  love,  dire  revenge,  and  supernatural  occurrences 
of  every  sort  until  he  is  weary  of  it  all.  Then  he  is  glad  to 
come  back  to  his  actual  life,  in  which  cause  and  effect  are 
so  much  more  clearly  seen,  and  which,  if  more  matter-of- 
fact,  is  more  comfortable  than  the  hap-hazard  existence  of 
those  remarkable  beings  who  were  liable  to  be  changed  into 


GREECE.  47 

beasts,  or  trees,  or  almost  anything  else  at  a  moment's 
notice,  or  to  be  whisked  away  from  the  midst  of  their 
families  and  friends  and  set  down  to  starve  in  some  desolate 
place  where  there  was  nothing  to  eat,  and  no  one  to  listen 
to  complaints  of  sorrow  or  hunger. 

This  legendary  time  in  Grecian  history  begins  nobody 
knows  when,  and  ends  about  one  thousand  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  Our  only  knowledge  of  it  comes  from  the 
mythology  which  we  have  inherited  from  the  past,  and  the 
two  poems  of  Homer,  called  the  "  Iliad  "  and  the  "  Odys- 
sey. 

The  "  Iliad"  recounts  the  anger  of  Achilles  and  all  that 
happened  in  the  Trojan  War;  the  "Odyssey"  relates  the 
wonderful  adventures  of  Ulysses.  Probably  Homer  never 
thought  of  such  a  thing  as  being  an  historian — he  was  a 
poet — much  less  did  he  dream  of  being  the  only  historian 
of  any  certain  time  or  age  ;  but  since,  in  the  course  of  his 
poems,  he  refers  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  years 
that  had  preceded  him,  and  gives  accounts  of  certain  past 
events,  he  is,  in  truth,  the  prime  source  from  which  we 
learn  the  little  that  we  know  of  the  prehistoric  days  in 
Greece. 

It  is  believed  that  Homer  wrote  about  850  B.C.,  and 
after  that  date  we  have  nothing  complete  in  Greek  litera- 
ture until  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  is  called  the  "  Father 
of  History"  and  was  born  in  484  B.C.  Thus  four  centuries 
between  Homer  and  Herodotus  are  left  with  no  authorita- 
tive writings. 

The  legendary  or  first  period  of  Greek  history  was  fol- 
lowed by  five  hundred  years  more  of  which  we  have  no  con- 
tinuous history  ;  but  facts  have  been  gathered  here  and 
there  from  the  works  of  various  authors  which  make  it  pos- 
sible to  give  a  reliable  account  of  the  Greece  of  that  time. 
For  our  purpose  in  this  book  we  go  on  to  a  still  later  time, 
or  a  third  period,  which  began  about  500  B.C.,  in  which  the 


48  ARCHITECTURE. 

architecture  and  art  which  we  have  in  mind,  when  we  use 
the  general  term  Greek  Art,  originated. 

It  is  true  that  before  this  temples  had  been  erected  of 
which  we  have  some  knowledge,  and  the  elegant  and  ornate 
articles  which  Dr.  Schliemann  has  found  in  his  excavations 
at  Troy  and  Mycenae  prove  that  the  art  of  that  remote  time 
reached  a  high  point  of  excellence.  The  temples  and  other 
buildings  of  which  we  know  anything,  and  which  belonged 
to  the  second  period,  were  clumsy  and  rude  when  compared 
with  the  perfection  of  the  time  which  we  propose  to  study. 
Before  we  speak  of  any  one  edifice  it  is  best  to  under- 
stand something  of  the  various  orders  of  Greek  architect- 
ure, more  especially  as  the  terms  which  belong  to  it  and 
had  their  origin  in  it  are  now  used  in  speaking  of  architect- 
ure the  world  over,  and  from  being  first  applied  to  Greek 
art  have  grown  to  be  general  in  their  application. 

In  the  most  ancient  days  of  Greece  the  royal  fortresses 
were  the  finest  structures,  but  in  later  days  the  temple 
became  the  supreme  object  upon  which  thought  and  labor 
were  lavished.  The  public  buildings  which  served  the  uses 
of  the  whole  people  were  second  in  consideration,  while  the 
private  dwellings  were  of  the  least  importance  of  ail.  The 
Greek  temple  was  built  upon  a  raised 
structure  like  those  of  Assyria  and  other 
Oriental  nations,  but  the  Greek  temple 
was  much  smaller,  and  by  a  dignified  and 
simple  elegance  in  detail,  and  a  harmony 
in  all  its  parts,  it  expressed  a  more  noble 
religious  sentiment  than  could  be  con- 
veyed by  all  the  vast  piles  of  massive 
DIANA,  ELEUSIS.  confusion  that  had  abounded  in  more 

Eastern  lands. 

The  earliest  and  simplest  Greek  temples  were  merely 
small,  square  chambers  made  to  contain  an  image  of  a  god, 
and  in  later  times,  when  the  temples  came  to  be  splendid 


H' ^^f^^'^^^^.'.  f^'^^f^f^r^^' •'  *r'  ^^'•^•^i'^ 
•  J£.-v;'?*.>J-. -J^*  v^rV^--.  >>?/.i"  ?^V  4^  '     iTFi- ••:•'••* ..^ 


,  -.^     _,.v.i   ^^^  "*        .         -    '      /  •  V-fBT    *     .gfrtf*J'T      ^jJtJ-^  '     •.    '"-  -*+*^        •  ~**—ff(  jiiif-r-.    ^^      -^.K-*J'      .**£MT    ,r 


FIG.  35. — GRAVESTONE  FROM  MYCENVE  (SCHLIEMANX). 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  37. — SMALL  TEMPLE  AT  RHAMNUS. 


and  grand,  the  apartment  containing  the  sacred  image  was 
still  called  the  cella  or  cell,  as  it  had  been  named  from  the 
first.  The  simplest  form  of  temple  was  like  the  little  cut 
(Fig.  36),  and  had  two  pillars  in  the  centre  of  the  front 
and  two  square  pilasters  at  the  front  end  of  the  side  walls. 
These  pilasters  are  called  antce,  and  the  whole  style  of  the 
building  is  called  distyle  in  antis ;  the  word  distyle  denotes 
the  two  pillars,  and  the  expression  means  two  pillars  with 
antse. 

The  above  picture  shows  the   next  advance  that  was 
made  in  form  (Fig.  37).     A  porch  was  added  to  the  cell,. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  38. — PLAN 

OF  TEMPLE  OF 

APOLLO, 


the  two  parts  being  separated  by  a  wall  with  a  doorway 
in  it.  After  a  time  the  number  of  pillars  in  front  was  in- 
creased to  six,  and  the  two  outer  ones  were  the  first  of  a 
row  which  extended  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  sides  of  the  temple,  thus  forming  a 
peristyle,  or  a  row  of  columns  entirely  around 
the  cell  ;  the  cell  itself  remained,  according 
to  the  original  plan,  in  the  centre  of  the 
building.  The  ground  plan  of  such  a  temple 
is  given  in  the  next  wood-cut  (Fig.  38). 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Greek  temples 
were  built  in  this  manner,  and  were  called 
hexastyle  from  the  six  columns  on  the  front. 
The  different  orders  of  ancient  Greek 
architecture  are  called  the  Doric,  the  Ionic, 
and  the  Corinthian.  The  Greeks  were  very 
fond  of  the  Doric  order,  and  used  it  so- 
extensively  as  to  make  it  almost  exclusively  their  own. 
The  picture  of  the  Parthenon  will  help  you  to  understand 
the  explanations  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Doric  order 

(Fig-  39)- 

As  you  see,  the  pillars  had  no  base,  but  rested  directly 

on  the  upper  plinth  of  the  foundation  of  the  building.  The 
shaft  of  the  column  is  cut  in  flutings,  and  the  number  of 
them  varies  from  sixteen  to  twenty  ;  the  latter  number  being 
most  frequently  used.  The  capital  of  the  column  is  divided 
into  two  portions  ;  the  lower  one  is  called  the  echinus,  and 
projects  beyond  the  shaft  and  supports  a  square  tile  or 
block  which  is  called  the  abacus,  and  this  is  the  architectural 
name  for  the  upper  member  of  all  capitals  to  columns. 
The  architrave  or  principal  beam  above  these  columns  rests 
directly  on  the  capitals  and  runs  around  the  building.  This 
architrave  is  made  of  separate  blocks  of  marble  or  stone, 
and  is  finished  at  the  top  by  a  small  strip  of  the  same 
materials,  which  is  called  a  tenia.  This  cut,  which  gives  st 


GREECE. 


53 


section  of  the  Parthenon  on  a  larger  scale  than  the  last 
picture,  will  enable  you  to  find  the  different  portions  more 
easily  (Fig.  40). 

Above  the  architrave  and  resting  on  it  is  the  frieze ;  this 
is  ornamented  with  fluted  spaces  called  triglyphs,  because 
they  are  cut  in  three  flutings.  The  spaces  between  the 


Sima. 


Pediment. 

Geison. 
Cornice. 


Frieze. 


Architrave. 


Abacus. 
Echinus. 


Triglyph.     2 


FIG.  40. — FROM  THE  PARTHENON,  ATHENS. 

triglyphs  are  called  metopes,  and  sometimes  left  plain,  and 
sometimes  ornamented  with  sculptures,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
frieze  of  the  Parthenon.  Under  the  triglyphs  six  little 
blocks,  or  drops,  are  placed  so  that  they  lay  over  the  archi- 
trave. Above  the  frieze  there  is  another  narrow  strip,  or 
tenia,  like  that  upon  the  architrave.  Above- all  this  rests 
the  cornice,  and  underneath  the  cornice  are  one  or  more 
rows  of  the  small,  drop-like  blocks  such  as  make  the  lower 
finish  of  the  triglyphs  ;  in  the  lower  band  of  the  cornice 


54  ARCHITECTURE. 

separate  blocks  are  placed  over  each  triglyph  and  each 
metope,  with  a  small  space  between. 

It  is  important  to  know  that  the  architrave,  frieze,  and 
cornice,  all  taken  together,  form  what  is  called  the  entab- 
lature ;  and  the  entablature  occupies  the  whole  of  the  broad 
space  between  the  top  of  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  and  the 
lower  edge  of  the  roof. 

The  triangular  space  formed  by  the  sloping  of  the  roof 
upon  the  ends  of  a  building  is  called  the  pediment,  and,  as 
you  will  see  in  the  picture  of  the  Parthenon,  its  pediment 
was  ornamented  with  elaborate  sculptures  which  are  spoken 
of  in  the  volume  of  this  series  which  is  devoted  to  that  art. 
It  was  customary  to  thus  ornament  the  pediment  and  to 
paint  the  walls  of  the  cella  and  other  portions  of  the  build- 
ing, so  that  while  the  pure  Doric  style  seems  at  first  sight 
to  be  stiff  and  straight  in  its  effect,  it  becomes  rich  and 
ornamental  by  the  use  of  sculpture  and  painting,  and  yet 
remains  solid  and  stable. 

The  Doric  style  may  be  regarded  as  a  native  growth  in 
Greece,  as  almost  every  detail  of  its  construction  and  itr 
ornaments  may  be  traced  back  to  the  early  wooden  build- 
ings of  the  people,  as  the  architecture  of  the  tombs  of  Beni- 
Hassan  had  been.  The  triglyphs,  for  instance,  represent 
the  ends  of  the  beams  upon  which  the  rafters  rested,  while 
the  bas-reliefs  between  took  the  place  of  the  votive  offerings 
which  in  the  primitive  temples  were  placed  in  the  open 
spaces  between  the  beams.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  go 
into  all  the  particulars  of  this  resemblance,  which  perhaps 
learned  men  have  sometimes  carried  too  far,  and  which  are 
rather  difficult  to  understand  ;  it  is  enough  to  say  that  there 
are  excellent  reasons  for  regarding  the  theory  as,  upon  the 
whole,  sound,  although,  of  course,  the  Grecian  architects 
modified  and  enriched  the  forms  which  the  simple  timber 
work  had  suggested. 

The  next  great  order  was  called  the  Ionic,  and  has  a 


GREECE. 


55 


close  relation  with  cer- 
tain forms  found  in  Asia 
Minor.  This  picture  of 
an  Ionic  capital  and  en- 
tablature is  taken  from 
the  Temple  of  Athena 
at  Priene  (Fig.  41).  Its 
scroll-like  capital  recalls 
those  of  the  pillars  in 
the  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes 
at  Persepolis,  shown  in 
Figs.  28  and  29,  and 
many  examples  of  even 
closer  resemblance  might 
be  given.  The  order 
differed  from  the  Doric 
principally  in  the  orna- 
mentation of  its  capitals 
and  in  the  fact  that  the 

columns  have  bases.     These  cuts  show  different  kinds  of 
bases  belonging  to  the  Ionic  order.     The  first  is  from  the 

temple  at  Priene  (Fig.  42), 
and  the  second  is  the  form 
known  as  the  Attic  base  (Fig. 
43).  The  third  is  especially 
interesting  from  its  close  re- 
semblance to  the  ancient  Per- 
sian base  shown  in  Fig.  32, 
and  is  another  illustration  of 
the  Eastern  origin  of  this  or- 
der (Fig.  44). 

The  Ionic  capital  is  very 
easily  recognized  by  its  spiral 
projections,  or  scrolls,  which 
are  called  volutes  (Fig.  45). 


FIG.  41. — IONIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


JEDDD 


FIG.  42. — IONIC  BASE,  FROM 
PRIENE. 


FIG.  43. — ATTIC  BASE. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


These  are  so  placed  that  they  present  a  flat  surface  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  capital,  like  the  picture  below  (Fig. 
46)  ;  sometimes  the  volutes  are  fin- 
ished by  a  rosette  in  the  centre. 

The  shaft  of  the  Ionic  column  is 
sometimes  plain  and  sometimes  flut- 
ed ;  the  flutings  number  twenty-four, 
and  are  separated  by  a  narrow,  plain 
band  or  fillet.  In  some  ancient  ex- 
amples of  the  Ionic  order  the  entire 
entablature  is  left  plain,  but  in  many 
instances  there  are  bands  of  carvings, 
as  in  the  first  Ionic  example  given 
above  ;  in  some  modern  Italian 
architecture  even  more  ornament 
has  been  added. 

The    three,    or    sometimes    two, 
layers  or  bands  of  stone  which  form 
the     Ionic 
architrave 
project  a  lit- 
tle, each  one 


FIG.  45. — IONIC  CAPITAL 
(FRONT  VIEW). 


FIG.  44. — BASE  FROM 
TEMPLE  OF  HERA,  SAMOS. 


more  than  the  other,  and  the  orna- 
mented band  above  it  serves  to  sep- 
arate it  from 
the  frieze  so 
as    to    make 

these  two  portions  of   the  entabla- 
ture quite  distinct  from  each  other. 
The  frieze  is  never  divided  into  set 
spaces  as   in    the   Doric  order,    but 
when  ornamented  has  a  continuous 
design  in  relief. 
The  lower  part  of  the  cornice  is  frequently  cut  in  little 
pieces  or  dentals  which  form  what  is  called  the  "  tooth-like 


FIG.  46. — IONIC  CAPITAL 
(SIDE  VIEW). 


GREECE. 


57 


ornament  ;"  these  have  the  effect  of  hanging  from  under- 
neath the  cornice.  There  is  a  certain  pleasing  effect  in 
Ionic  architecture  which,  perhaps,  appeals  to  our  taste  at 
first  sight  more  forcibly  than  does  the  severe  elegance  of 
the  Doric  order.  Nevertheless,  the  latter  is  a  higher  type 
of  art,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  it  can  ever  be  superseded 
by  any  new  invention  or 
lose  the  prestige  which 
it  has  held  so  long. 

That  which  is  called 
the  Corinthian  order 
differs  very  little  from 
the  Ionic  except  in  the 
capital,  but  as  this  was 
so  prominent  a  member 
of  the  Ionic  style,  the 
difference  seems  greater 
than  it  really  is.  It  is 
therefore  not  necessary 
to  speak  of  its  parts  in 
detail.  The  Choragic 
Monument  of  Lysicrates 
at  Athens  is  as  good  a 
specimen  of  the  order  as 
remains  at  this  time,  and 
of  this  we  give  an  illus- 
tration (Fig.  47). 

The  Corinthian  order  of  architecture  does  not  belong  to 
the  early  period  of  art  in  Greece.  It  came  after  the  influ- 
ence of  Oriental  architecture  had  been  shown  in  the  Ionic 
style  ;  and  perhaps  the  beautiful  Corinthian  capital  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  palm-leaf  and  lotus  capitals  of 
Egypt-  What  has  been  said  of  other  orders  will  help  you 
in  understanding  this  ;  but  I  shall  tell  you  especially  about 
its  capital,  as  that  is  its  distinguishing  feature.  The  form 


FIG.  47. — FROM  MONUMENT  OF 
LYSICRATES,  ATHENS. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  capital  may  be  called  bell-shaped,  and  it  is  set  round 
with  two  rows  of  leaves,  eight  in  each  row  ;  above  these  is 
a  third  row  of  leaves,  or  of  a  sort  of  small  twisted  husks, 
which  supports  eight  small  volutes.  The  abacus  or  top 
portion  of  the  capital  is  cut  out  at  the  corners  so  that  sharp 
projections  are  made,  called  horns,  and  one  volute  comes 
directly  under  each  horn  of  the  abacus.  This  cut  (Fig.  48) 

gives  a  more  distinct  idea  of  the 
capital  than  does  that  above,  and 
you  will  see  that  four  of  the  vo- 
lutes really  form  the  upper  corners 
of  the  capital.  The  four  other 
volutes  meet  on  two  opposite  sides 
of  the  capital  ;  sometimes  they 
are  interwoven,  and  a  flower,  or 
rosette,  or  some  other  ornament 
is  placed  above  them  and  lays  up 
over  the  abacus.  Different  kinds 
of  leaves  are  used  in  making  this 
capital ;  olive,  water  plant,  and 
acanthus  are  all  thus  employed  ; 
there  is  a  very  pretty  legend  as 
to  its  origin  which  makes  the 
acanthus  seem  to  be  the  only  one 
FIG.  48. — CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  which  belongs  to  it,  and  is  as 

follows  : 

It  was  the  custom  in  Greece  to  place  a  basket  upon  the 
new-made  graves  in  which  were  the  viands  which  those 
there  buried  had  preferred  when  in  life.  About  550  B.C.  a 
lovely  virgin  died  at  Corinth,  and  her  nurse  arranged  the 
basket  with  care  and  covered  it  with  a  tile.  It  happened 
that  the  basket  was  set  directly  over  a  young  acanthus 
plant,  and  the  leaves  grew  up  about  it  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  sculptor  Callimachus  was  attracted  by  its  grace  and 
beauty,  and  conceived  the  idea  of  using  it  as  a  model  for  a 


GREECE. 


59 


new  capital  in  architecture.  I  have  always  been  sorry  that 
it  was  not  named  for  the  beautiful  maiden  rather  than  for 
the  city  in  which  she  was  buried. 

Another  feature  of  Greek  architecture  is  the 
use  of  the  Caryatid,  or  a  human  figure  stand- 
ing upon  a  base  and  supporting  the  capital  of 
a  column  upon  the  head,  or,  to  put  it  more 
plainly,  a  human  figure  serving  as  the  shaft  to 
a  column.  These  figures  are  usually  females, 
and  this  picture  of  one  from  the  Erechtheium 
at  Athens  shows  how  they  are  placed  (Fig. 
49).  Sometimes  the  figures  of  giants,  called 
Telamones,  were  used  in  the  same  way. 

In  Oriental  art  such  figures  are  numerous  ; 
they  are  used  to  support  platforms  and  the 

thrones  of 
kings  ;  their  po- 
sition is  some- 
times varied  by 
making  the  up- 
lifted hands 
bear  the  weight 
instead  of  the  head  (Fig.  50). 
In  any  case  this  feature  in 
architecture  is  tiresome,  and 
its  use  is  certainly  question- 
able as  a  matter  of  good  taste. 
Having  given  a  general 
outline  of  the  characteristics 
of  Greek  architecture,  1  will 
speak  of  some  remarkable 
edifices  which  are  beautiful 
in  themselves  and  have  an 

interest  for  us  on  account  of  their  associations  with  the 
history  of  the  world,  as  well  as  with  that  of  art. 


FIG.  49. — 
CARYATID. 


FIG.  50. — STOOL,  OR  CHAIR, 
KHORSABAD, 


60  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  of  which  nothing 
now  remains,  was  the  largest  and  most  splendid  of  all  the 
Greek  temples.  It  was  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet 
long  by  two  hundred  and  twenty  wide. 

The  ancients  counted  this  temple  as  one  of  the  Seven 
Wonders  of  the  World,  and  when  we  know  that  its  pillars 
were  sixty  feet  high,  and  that  the  beams  of  the  architrave 
•which  had  to  be  lifted  up  above  the  pillars  to  be  put  in 
place  were  each  thirty  feet  long,  we  can  readily  understand 
that  the  building  of  it  was  a  wonderful  work.  This  was  not 
the  first  temple  that  had  stood  on  the  same  spot,  for  we 
know  that  one  had  been  burned  on  the  night  in  which  Alex- 
ander the  Great  was  born,  356  B.C.  It  was  set  on  fire  by 
Herostratus  ;  he  was  tried  for  this  crime  and  was  put  to 
the  torture  to  make  him  declare  his  motive  for  doing  such 
a  dreadful  deed  ;  he  gave  as  his  only  reason  his  desire  to 
have  his  name  handed  down  through  all  ages,  and  he 
believed  that  by  burning  the  temple  he  should  accomplish 
his  object — as,  indeed,  he  did,  for  every  historian  repeats  the 
story  of  his  crime,  and  his  name  stands  as  a  synonym  for 
wicked  ambition. 

After  this  destruction  the  temple  was  rebuilt  on  a  most 
magnificent  scale,  and  was  not  finished  until  two  hundred 
and  twenty  years  had  passed.  Diana  was  a  great  and 
powerful  goddess,  and  all  the  nations  of  Asia  united  in  gifts 
for  the  adornment  of  her  shrine  ;  the  women  even  gave 
their  personal  ornaments  to  be  sold  to  increase  the  fund  to 
be  spent  upon  it. 

This  temple  was  four  times  as  large  as  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  and  had  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  splendid 
columns,  thirty-six  of  which  were  finely  carved  and  were 
the  gifts  of  various  sovereigns.  The  grand  staircase  was 
made  from  the  wood  of  a  single  Cyprian  vine.  But  great 
as  was  the  temple  itself,  its  adornments  of  statues  by  the 
sculptor  Praxiteles,  and  the  vast  treasures  of  ornaments  and 


GREECE.  6l 

rare  objects  by  which  it  was  enriched  made  it  even  more 
famous.  The  Temple  of  Diana  was  robbed  by  Nero  and 
burned  by  the  Goths,  but  its  final  destruction  probably 
occurred  after  A.D.  381,  when  the  Emperor  Theodosius  I. 
issued  an  edict  forbidding  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  pagan 
worship. 

Many  beautiful  objects  were  taken  away  to  adorn  the 
mediaeval  churches  of  other  religions  than  that  of  the 
Ephesians.  Some  of  its  green  jasper  columns  were  used  to 
support  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and 
other  parts  of  it  are  seen  in  the  cathedrals  of  Italy. 

There  is  scarcely  a  more  desolate  spot  in  the  world  than 
is  the  Ephesus  of  to-day.  No  remaining  ruins  are  so  pre- 
served as  to  afford  the  visitor  any  satisfaction.  The 
marbles  and  stone  have  been  used  to  build  other  towns, 
which  in  their  turn  have  been  destroyed.  The  inhabitants 
are  a  handful  of  poor  Greek  peasants  ;  wolves  and  jackals 
from  the  neighboring  mountains  roam  about  ;  and  though 
an  abundance  of  myrtle  and  some  lovely  groves  relieve  the 
gloominess  of  the  scene,  it  is  impossible  when  there  to  re- 
create in  imagination  the  splendid  Ephesian  city,  with  its 
wharves  and  docks,  its  temples,  theatres,  and  palaces, 
which  were  so  famous  as  to  cause  it  to  be  spoken  of  with 
wonder  throughout  the  ancient  world. 

We  often  hear  of  the  glory  of  the  Periclean  age  at 
Athens,  and  it  is  true  that  under  the  leadership  of  Pericles 
Athens  reached  its  greatest  prosperity.  This  picture  shows 
the  Acropolis  as  it  appeared  at  that  time  (Fig.  51). 

In  these  best  days  of  Athens  the  whole  Acropolis  was 
consecrated  to  religious  worship  and  ceremonials,  and  its 
entire  extent  was  occupied  by  temples  and  statues  of  the 
gods.  The  fact  that  I  have  before  mentioned,  that  the 
religion  of  a  country  moulds  its  art,  is  especially  true  of  the 
art  of  Greece  ;  figures  of  the  gods  and  bas-reliefs  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Grecian  worship  form  a  large  and  most 


62  ARCHITECTURE. 

important  part  of  the  work  of  the  Greek  artists,  and  the 
splendid  temples  were  raised  to  be  the  sacred  homes  of 
the  statues  of  the  great  gods,  to  which  the  people  could 
come  with  offerings  and  prayers. 

The  Acropolis  was  also  a  sort  of  fortress,  because  it  was 
an  eminence,  and  its  sides  of  craggy  rock  allowed  of  but 
one  ascent  ;  thus  it  could  be  easily  defended.  Then,  when 
all  the  wonders  and  riches  of  art  had  been  collected  there, 
the  pure  white  marble,  the  sculpture  and  painting,  and  the 
ornaments  of  shining  metals  which  glistened  in  the  sun, 
while  brilliant  colors  added  their  rich  effect,  it  might  be 
called  a  gorgeous  museum,  such  as  has  never  since  been 
equalled  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

It  is  important  to  know  that  the  Athenians  worshipped 
three  different  goddesses,  all  called  by  the  one  name  of 
Athene  or  Athena.  The  most  ancient  and  most  sacred  of 
these  was  Athena  Polias,  whose  statue,  made  of  olive-wood, 
was  believed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The  Erechtheium 
was  dedicated  to  this  goddess,  and  there  this  holy,  heaven- 
sent figure  was  kept,  with  other  sacred  objects  of  which  I 
shall  speak  in  their  place. 

The  Athena  next  in  importance  was  the  goddess  of  the 
Parthenon,  or  the  "  House  of  the  Virgin,"  as  the  word 
signifies,  for  this  Athena  Parthenos  is  the  same  as  the 
goddess  Minerva,  who  is  said  never  to  have  married  or 
known  the  sentiment  of  love  ;  she  was  the  goddess  of  war, 
prudence,  and  wisdom.  The  third  Athena  was  called 
Promachos,  which  means  the  champion.  Phidias  made  of 
her  one  of  his  splendid  statues,  standing  erect,  with  helmet, 
spear,  and  shield. 

In  describing  the  Acropolis  we  shall  begin  with  the 
Propylsea,  or  the  entrances,  which  occupy  the  centre  of 
our  picture  and  to  which  the  steps  lead,  showing  the  pas- 
sage between  the  pillars,  three  being  left  on  each  side. 
This  magnificent  series  of  entrances — as  the  whole  ascent 


64  ARCHITECTURE. 

from  the  outer  gate  in  the  wall,  up  the  steps,  and  through 
the  passage  between  the  pillars  may  be  called — was  erected 
about  437  B.C.,  and  cost  two  thousand  talents  of  gold, 
which  is  equal  to  about  two  millions  of  our  dollars.  The 
fame  of  the  Propylsea  was  world-wide,  and  together  with 
the  Parthenon  it  was  considered  the  architectural  glory  of 
the  Periclean  age.  The  style  in  which  they  are  built  is  a 
splendid  example  of  the  combination  of  the  Doric  and  the 
Ionic  orders,  for  while  the  exterior  is  almost  pure  Doric, 
the  interior  is  made  more  cheerful  by  the  use  of  the  Ionic 
columns  and  ornamentation. 

High  up  at  the  right  of  the  picture  stands  the  Parthenon. 
Its  architecture,  which  is  Doric,  has  been  described.  We 
do  not  know  when  this  temple  was  begun,  but  it  is  probably 
on  the  site  of  an  older  one.  It  was  finished  438  B.C.,  and 
the  general  care  of  its  erection  was  given  to  Phidias,  the 
most  famous  of  all  sculptors.  The  marble  of  which  the 
Parthenon  was  built  was  pure  Pentelic,  and  as  it  rested  on 
a  rude  basement  of  limestone  the  contrast  between  the  two 
made  the  marble  of  the  temple  seem  all  the  finer.  Within 
and  without  this  temple  abounded  in  magnificent  sculptures 
executed  by  Phidias  himself  or  under  his  orders. 

The  Erechtheium,  which  is  only  partly  visible  at  the 
back  on  the  left  of  the  picture,  was  the  most  sacred  temple 
of  Athens.  It  was  the  burial-place  of  Erechtheus,  who 
was  regarded  not  only  as  the  founder  of  this  temple,  but 
also  of  the  religion  of  Athena  in  Athens.  Beside  the 
heaven-descended  statue  of  Athena  Polias  which  was  kept 
here,  there  was  the  sacred  olive-tree  which  Athena  had 
called  forth  from  the  earth  when  she  was  contending  for  the 
possession  of  Attica  ;  here,  too,  was  the  well  of  salt  water 
which  Poseidon  (or  Neptune)  made  by  striking  the  spot 
with  his  trident,  and  several  other  sacred  objects  (Fig.  52). 

This  beautiful  temple  was  built  in  the  Ionic  style,  and 
is  very  interesting  because  it  is  so  different  in  form  from 


GREECE.  65 

every  other  Greek  temple  of  which  we  know.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  built  where  the  ground 
was  not  level,  one  portion  of  it  being  eight  feet  higher  than 
another.  A  second  reason  for  its  irregularity  may  be  that 
it  required  to  be  divided  into  more  cells  or  apartments  than 
other  Greek  temples  in  order  to  arrange  the  different  sacred 
objects  within  its  walls.  A  very  considerable  portion  of 
this  temple  is  still  standing.  The  frieze,  of  which  but  little 
remains,  was  of  black  marble,  upon  which  there  were  figures 
in  white  marble. 

The  Erechtheium  is  certainly  a  splendid  example  of  the 
Attic-Ionic  style,  and  the  eye  rests  upon  it  with  admira- 
tion ;  but  its  half-pillars  and  caryatides,  its  various  porches 
and  luxuriant  detail  of  form  and  ornament,  are  less  effec- 
tive as  a  whole  than  is  the  Parthenon  in  its  pure  Doric 
architecture. 

An  interesting  fact  about  Greek  architecture  is  that  the 
marbles  used  were  painted  in  high  colors.  There  is  a 
theory,  which  may  or  may  not  be  true,  that  the  custom  first 
arose  in  the  same  way  as  the  shape  of  the  Doric  entab- 
lature, from  the  imitation  of  wooden  buildings.  The  wood 
was  painted  to  preserve  it,  and  when  stone  began  to  be  sub- 
stituted, the  architects,  accustomed  to  bright  effects,  colored 
the  marbles  to  look  like  wood.  Whether  this  is  the  true 
origin  of  the  custom  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  the  custom 
prevailed.  The  lower  parts  of  the  pillars  of  a  Doric  tem- 
ple were  usually  stained  a  light  golden-brown  tint  ;  the 
triglyphs  and  the  mutules,  or  brackets  beneath  the  cornices, 
were  a  rich  blue  ;  the  trunnels,  or  wooden  pins,  were  red  or 
gilded  ;  the  metopes  had  a  dark  red  background,  against 
which  the  bas-reliefs  with  which  they  were  ornamented 
stood  out  in  strong  contrast,  while  the  frieze  and  cornice 
were  richly  painted  with  garlands  and  leaves.  So  highly 
colored  a  building  would  seem  less  out  of  place  amid  the 
varied  landscape  of  Greece  than  under  our  colder  skies,  and 


H 

s 

H 


GREECE.  67 

it  is  difficult  for  us  to  form  any  just  idea  of  the  splendid 
.appearance  it  must  have  presented. 

One  of  the  most  wonderful  things  about  Greek  architect- 
ure is  the  way  in  which  allowance  was  made  for  the  decep- 
tion of  the  eye  by  certain  forms  and  lines.  It  is  not  easy 
to  explain  this  fully,  but  it  is  too  remarkable  to  be  wholly 
passed  over.  If  a  column  were  cut  so  as  to  diminish  regu- 
larly from  the  bottom  to  the  top  it  would  seem  to  the  eye 
to  hollow  in,  and  to  correct  this  the  clever  Greek  architect 
made  his  columns  swell  out  a  little  at  the  middle.  This  is 
called  entasis,  and  is  the  best  known  of  the  means  taken  to 
make  forms  look  as  they  should.  Another  case  is  that  of 
long  horizontal  lines.  If  they  are  really  level  they  appear 
to  sag  at  the  centre,  therefore  in  Greek  temples  they  are 
delicately  rounded  up  a  little,  and  so  have  the  effect  of 
being  perfectly  straight.  These  two  examples  may  serve 
to  show  what  I  mean  by  saying  that  architectural  forms 
were  made  one  way  so  as  to  look  another,  and  in  nothing 
did  the  Greek  architecture  show  more  marvellous  skill  and 
taste  than  in  this. 

In  other  Grecian  cities  the  architecture  differed  but  little 
from  that  of  Athens,  and,  indeed,  the  influence  of  Athenian 
art  and  artists  was  felt  all  over  the  Eastern  world  ;  it  is 
therefore  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  speak  further  of 
Greek  temples. 

Next  in  importance  were  the  municipal  buildings,  of 
which  we  find  but  few  traces  at  Athens.  The  monument  of 
Lysicrates  is  so  beautiful  that  it  gives  us  a  most  exalted  idea 
of  what  the  taste  in  such  edifices  must  have  been  (Fig.  53). 

This  monument  was  erected  in  the  year  334  B.C.  when 
Lysicrates  was  cJioragus  •  this  officer  provided  the  chorus 
for  the  plays  represented  at  Athens  for  the  year.  It  was 
expensive  to  hold  this  position,  and  its  duties  were 
arduous  ;  the  choragus  had  to  find  the  men  for  the  chorus, 
.bring  them  together,  and  have  them  instructed  in  the 


68 


ARCHITECTURE. 


music,  and  also  provide  proper  food  for  them  while  they 
studied.  It  was  customary  to  present  a  tripod  to  the 
choragus  who  provided  the  finest  musical  entertainment, 

and  also  to  build  a  monument 
upon  which  the  tripod  was 
placed  as  a  lasting  honor  to 
him  who  had  received  it. 
There  was  a  street  at  Athens 
called  the  "  Street  of  the 
Tripods"  because  it  passed  a 
line  of  choragic  monuments* 
These  monuments  were  dedi- 
cated to  different  gods  ;  this 
of  Lysicrates  was  devoted  to 
Bacchus,  and  was  decorated 
with  sculptures  representing 
scenes  in  the  story  of  that 
god,  who  was  regarded  as  the 
patron  of  plays  and  theatres  ; 
indeed,  the  Greek  drama  orig- 
inated in  the  choruses  which 
were  sung  at  his  festivals. 

The  Greek  theatres  were 
very  large  and  fine  ;  the  seats 
were  ranged  in  a  half  circle,  but 
as  none  remain  in  a  sufficient 
state  of  preservation  to  afford 
a  satisfactory  picture,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  give  a  clear 
description  of  them  here. 
The  ancient  Greeks  were  not  tomb-builders,  and  we 
know  little  of  their  burial-places.  However,  the  Mauso- 
leum built  at  Halicarnassus  by  Artemisia,  in  memory  of  her 
husband,  Mausolus,  was  so  important  as  to  be  numbered 
among  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  (Fig.  54). 


FIG.  53. — CHORAGIC  MONUMENT 
OF  LYSICRATES.     Athens. 


GREECE. 


69 


FIG.  54. — THE  MAUSOLEUM  AT  HALICARNASSUS  (RESTORED). 


Mausolus  was  the  King  of  Caria,  of  which  country  Hali- 
carnassus  was  the  chief  city.  He  died  about  353  B.C.,  and 
his  wife,  Artemisia,  gradually  faded  away  with  sorrow  at 
his  death,  and  survived  him  but  two  years.  But  during 
this  time  she  had  commenced  the  erection  of  the  Mauso- 
leum, and  the  artists  to  whom  she  intrusted  the  work  were 
as  faithful  in  completing  it  as  though  she  had  lived,  for  the 
sake  of  their  own  fame  as  artists.  This  magnificent  tomb 
may  be  described  as  an  example  of  architecture  as  a  fine  art 


70  ARCHITECTURE. 

exclusively,  for  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  useful,  since 
the  body  of  Mausolus  was  burned  according  to  custom,  and 
certainly  a  much  smaller  tomb  would  have  been  sufficient 
for  the  remaining  ashes. 

The  whole  height  of  the  Mausoleum  was  one  hundred 
and  forty  feet  ;  the  north  and  south  aisles  were  sixty-three 
feet  long,  and  the  others  a  little  less.  The  burial  vault  was 
at  the  base,  and  the  whole  mass  above  it  was  ornamented 
with  magnificent  designs  splendidly  executed.  Above  the 
whole  was  a  quadriga,  or  four-horse  chariot,  in  which  it  is 
said  that  a  figure  of  Mausolus  was  placed  so  that  from  land 
or  sea  it  could  be  seen  at  a  great  distance.  It  is  not  strange 
that  this  tomb  was  called  a  wonder  in  its  day,  and  from  it 
we  still  take  our  word  "  mausoleum"  for  all  burial-places 
which  merit  so  distinguished  a  name. 

Writers  of  the  twelfth  century  speak  of  the  beauty  of 
this  tomb,  but  in  A.D.  1402,  when  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
took  possession  of  Halicarnassus,  it  no  longer  remained, 
and  a  castle  was  built  upon  its  site.  The  tomb  had  been 
buried,  probably  by  an  earthquake,  and  the  name  ot  the 
place  was  then  changed  to  Boodroom. 

In  the  year  1522  some  sculptures  were  found  there,  but 
it  was  not  until  1856  that  Mr.  Newton,  an  Englishman,  dis- 
covered that  these  remains  had  belonged  to  the  Mausoleum. 
A  large  collection  of  reliefs,  statues,  and  other  objects, 
more  or  less  imperfect,  was  taken  to  London  and  placed  in 
the  British  Museum,  where  they  are  known  as  the  "  Hali- 
carnassus Sculptures." 

As  other  temples  were  influenced  by  the  example  of  the 
Athenian  builders,  so  many  other  tombs  resembled  that  of 
Mausolus  in  greater  or  less  degree,  although  none  ap- 
proached it  in  grandeur  and  magnificence. 

Of  the  domestic  architecture  of  the  Greeks  we  know 
very  little.  Almost  all  that  is  said  of  it  is  chiefly  specula- 
tion, as  even  the  descriptions  of  Grecian  palaces  and  houses 


ETRURIA.  /I 

which  are  given  by  the  classic  writers  are  imperfect.  The 
life  of  the  Greek  was  passed  largejy  in  public,  at  the  temple, 
the  theatre,  or  the  baths,  or  at  least  in  the  open  air,  and 
comparatively  little  attention  was  given  to  the  building  of 
the  private  houses  ;  but  in  the  ruins  of  the  temples  and 
other  monuments  which  still  exist  we  have  sufficient  proof 
that  no  art  has  surpassed  that  of  ancient  Greece  in  purity, 
elegance,  and  grandeur  of  style. 


ETRURIA. 


Since  the  Etruscans  were  an  earlier  Italian  nation  than 
the  Romans,  and  Rome,  in  her  primal  days,  was  ruled  by 
Etruscan  kings,  it  is  here  fitting  to  speak  of  this  remarkable 
old  people. 


FIG.  55. — TOMBS  AT  CASTEL  o'Asso. 

As  Rome  increased  the  Etruscans  disappeared,  and  the 
younger  power  came  to  have  so  mighty  an  influence  in  the 
world  that  it  absorbed  the  consideration  of  all  nations  as 
much  as  if  no  other  had  ever  ruled  in  Italy. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


No  Etruscan  temple  now  remains,  but  we  know  that 
they  were  not  splendid  like  those  of  Greece.  They  were  of 
two  forms,  one  being  circular  and  dedicated  to  a  single 
deity,  while  others  were  devoted  to  three  gods  and  had 


FIG.  56. — PRINCIPAL  CHAMBER  IN  REGULINI-GALEASSI  TOMB. 

three   cells  ;  their   walls  were   built   at  right  angles,   thus 
making  their  shape  regular. 

The  theatres  and  amphitheatres  of  the  Etruscans  were 
nearly  circular  and  much  like  those  of  the  later  Italians,  but 
not  one  remains  except  that  at  Sutri,  which,  being  cut  in 
the  rock,  does  not  afford  a  good  example  of  the  usual 
arrangement  of  these  edifices. 


ETRURIA. 


73 


FIG.  57. — ARCH  AT  VOLTERRA. 


In  fact,  the   only  important  remains  of  Etruscan   archi- 
tecture   are  the  tombs,  of  which  there  are  many.     These 
are  of  two  kinds  ;    the  first 
are  cut  in  the  rocks  and  re- 
semble the   Egyptian  tombs 
at    Beni-Hassan,    reminding 
one  of  little  houses  (Fig.  55). 

The  second  and  most 
numerous  class  are  mounds 
of  earth  raised  above  a  wall 
at  the  base.  These  were 
called  "Tumuli,"  and  some 
of  them  had  fine,  well-fur- 
nished apartments  in  their 
midst.  The  next  cut  shows 
such  a  room  as  it  appeared 

when  first  opened  ;  in  it  were  found  bedsteads,  biers,  shields, 
arrows,    a  variety  of  vessels,  and  several  kinds  of    useful 

utensils  (Fig.  56). 

These  tombs  are  in 
truth    more    connected 


with    other    arts    than 
with    architecture,    and 
many  beautiful  articles 
have     been     found     in 
them.     The  most  inter- 
esting feature  of  Etrus- 
can architecture  is  the 
arch,    which    was    first 
brought     into     general 
use  by  the  Romans,  but 
is  found  in  Etruscan  re- 
mains (Fig.  57),  both  in  the  semi-circular  and  pointed  forms. 
The  principle  of  the  arch  had  been  known  to  several  Oriental 
nations,  but  it  had  been  applied  only  to  short  spaces  and 


FIG.  58.— GATEWAY.    Arpino. 


74 


ARCHITECTURE. 


comparatively    unimportant   uses,    such   as    windows    and 
doorways  (Fig.  58). 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  earliest  works  of  the 
Romans  were  executed  under  the  direction  of  Etruscan 
architects.  Among  these  was  the  great  Cloaca  Maxima,  or 


FIG.  59. — ARCH  OF  CLOACA  MAXIMA.     Rome. 

principal  drain  of  ancient  Rome.  This  was  a  wonderful 
achievement  ;  it  is  probable  that  the  oldest  arch  in  Europe 
is  that  of  this  sewer,  and  the  fact  of  its  still  remaining 
proves  how  well  it  must  have  been  built  in  order  to  last  so 
long  (Fig.  59). 

ROME. 

The  early  works  of  Rome,  which  were  largely  executed 
by  the  Etruscans,  were  principally  those  useful,  semi-archi 
tectural  objects  necessary  in  the  making  of  a  city,  such  as 
aqueducts  and  bridges.  These  belong  quite  as  much  to 
civil  engineering  as  to  architecture,  and  we  shall  not  speak 
of  them. 

In  studying  Roman  architecture  one  is  surprised  at  the 
number  of  uses  to  which  it  was  applied,   for  not  only  do 


ROME. 


75 


z 


) I 


the  temples,  tombs,  theatres,  and  monuments  such  as  we 
have  found  in  other  countries  exist  in  Rome,  but  there  are 
also  basilicas,   baths,   palaces,   triumphal  arches,   pillars  of 
victory,  fountains,  and 
various   other   objects    c^ 
suited  to  the  wants  of 
a  great  people. 

No  truly  pure, 
national  order  of  ar- 
chitecture existed  at 
Rome.  The  union  of 
the  arch  of  the  Etrus- 
cans with  the  columns 
of  the  Greeks  enabled 
the  Romans  to  change 
the  forms  of  their  edi- 
fices and  to  produce  a 
great  variety  in  them. 
They  employed  the 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Co- 
rinthian orders,  but 
they  rarely  used  one 
of  these  alone  ;  they 
united  them  in  endless 
combinations,  and  in- 
troduced a  capital  of 
the  order  which  ^  is  FIG.  6o.-CoMPosiTE  ORDER,  FROM  THE 
called  the  Composite  ARCH  OF  SEPTIMIUS  SEVERUS.  Rome. 

(Fig.  60).     It  consists 

of  the  lower  part  of  the  Corinthian  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  Ionic  capital ;  this  was  very  rich-  in  ornament,  but  the 
line  where  the  two  orders  were  joined  was  always  a  defect, 
and  it  never  came  into  general  favor. 

The  Romans  also  introduced  what  is  called  the  Tuscan 
order,   which  is  usually  mentioned  with  the  Doric,  Ionic, 


76 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Corinthian,  and  Composite,  as  being  one  of  the  five  classic 
orders  of  architecture,  although  it  is  really  little  more  than 
a  variety  of  the  Doric,  as  the  Composite  is  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  It  differed  from  the  Doric  in  having  a  base,  while 
its  frieze  was  simple  and  unadorned,  the  cornice  also  being 
very  plain.  The  shaft  of  the  Tuscan  column  was  never 
fluted. 

The  Romans  also  used  an  arcade  which  was  a  combina- 
tion of  Greek  and  Etruscan  art,  like  this  cut  (Fig.  61)  ;  thus 
showing  a  power  of  adapting  forms  which  already  existed 

in  new  combinations  and  for 
new  purposes,  rather  than  an 
originative  genius. 

A  very  important  advance 
made  by  the  Romans  was  the 
improvement  of  interior  ar- 
chitecture. The  halls  and  por- 
tions of  edifices  to  be  used 
were  more  cared  for  than  ever 
before  ;  this  was  sometimes 
done  at  the  expense  of  the 
exteriors,  to  which  the  Greeks 
had  devoted  all  their  thought. 
In  fact,  many  ancient  Roman 
temples  were  inferior  to  other 

edifices  which  they  built.  The  Pantheon  is  the  only  one 
existing  in  such  a  state  as  to  be  spoken  of  with  satisfaction. 
This  ground-plan  (Fig.  62)  shows  that  the  Pantheon  is 
circular  with  a  porch.  Taken  separately,  the  rotunda  and 
the  porch  are  each  fine  in  their  own  way,  but  the  joining 
of  the  circular  and  angular  forms  has  an  effect  of  unfitness 
which  one  cannot  forget  even  when  looking  at  that  which 
we  regard  with  reverent  interest.  The  central  portion  was 
at  first  a  part  of  the  Baths  of  Agrippa,  but  on  account  of 
its  great  beauty  it  was  changed  by  Agrippa  himself  into 


FIG.  61. — DORIC  ARCADE. 


ROME. 


77 


a  temple,  by  the  addition  of  a  row  of  Corinthian  columns 
around  the  interior.     (See  Fig.  63.) 

Taken  all  in  all,  the  effect  of  the  Pantheon  is  that  of 
grandeur  and  simplicity.  When  we  remember  that  sixteen 
hundred  and  eighty-eight  years  have  passed  since  it  was 


FIG.  62. — GROUND-PLAN  OF  PANTHEON.     Rome. 


repaired  by  Septimius  Severus,  we  wonder  at  its  good  pres- 
ervation, though  we  know  that  it  has  been  robbed  of  its 
bronze  covering  and  other  fine  ornaments.  An  inscription 
still  remaining  on  its  portico  states  that  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  Septimius  Severus  repaired  this  temple  ;  history  says 
that  Hadrian  restored  it  after  a  fire,  probably  about  the 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  63. — INTERIOR  OF  THE  PANTHEON. 

year  117,  and  it  is  even  said  that  Agrippa,  who  died  A.D. 
13,  added  the  portico  to  a  rotunda  which  existed  before  his 
time. 

The  objects  now  in  the  interior  of  the  Pantheon  are  so 
largely  modern  that  they  do  not  belong  to  this  portion  of 
our  subject,  but  there  is  much  interest  associated  with  this 
spot,  and  it  is  dear  to  all  the  world  as  the  burial-place  of 
Raphael,  Annibale  Caracci,  and  other  great  artists. 

Next  to  the  temples  of  Rome  came  the  Basilicas,  of 
which  there  were  many  before  the  time  of  Constantine. 
The  word  basilica  means  the  royal  house,  and  these  edifices 
were  first  intended  for  a  court-room  in  which  the  king 
administered  his  laws  ;  later  they  became  markets,  or  places 
of  exchange,  where  men  met  for  business*transactions. 


ROME. 


79 


The  ruins  of  the  Basilicas  of  Trajan  and  Maxentius,  two  of 
the  finest  of  these  edifices,  are  in  such  condition  that  their 
plans  can  be  understood  (Fig.  64).  They  were  large,  and 
divided  into  aisles  by  rows  of  columns  ;  at  one  end  there  was 
a  semi-circular  recess  or  apse,  in  which  was  a  raised  platform, 
approached  by  steps,  also  semi-circular  in  form.  Upon  this 
platform  the  king  or  other  exalted  officer  had  his  place, 
while  those  of  lesser  rank  were  on  the  steps  below,  on  either 
side.  Fronting  the  apse  was  an  altar  upon  which  sacrifices 
were  offered  before  commencing;  any  important  business. 


FIG.  64. — LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  BASILICA  OF  MAXENTIUS. 

The  principal  reason  for  speaking  of  basilicas  is  that  by 
the  above  cut  you  ma}"  see  the  great  change  made  in  archi- 
tecture about  this  time  by  the  use  of  columns,  only  half  the 
height  of  the  building,  which  were  united  by  arches.  This 
was  a  very  important  step,  and  is,  in  truth,  one  of  the 
principal  features  that  mark  the  progress  of  the  change 
from  ancient  to  Gothic  architecture — a  change  not  fully 
developed  until  the  twelfth  century. 

I  shall  not  say  much  of  the  theatres,  amphitheatres,  and 
baths  of  ancient  Rome,  because  it  is  not  easy  to  treat  them 
in  the  simple  manner  suited  to  this  book  ;  they  were  mag- 
nificent and 'costly,  and  made  an  important  part  of  Roman 


80  ARCHITECTURE. 

architecture  ;  they  were  probably  copied  from  the  public 
buildings  of  the  Etruscans. 

Marcus  Scaurus  built  a  theatre  in  58  B.C.  which  held 
eighty  thousand  spectators  ;  it  had  rich  columns  and 
statues,  and  was  decorated  with  gold,  silver,  and  ivory. 
The  first  stone  theatre  in  Rome  was  built  in  55  B.C.,  and 
was  only  half  the  size  of  that  of  Marcus  Scaurus.  Parts  of 
the  theatre  of  Marcellus  still  remain  in  the  present  Orsini 
Palace  in  Rome,  and  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  architect- 
ure of  the  period  immediately  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

The  Emperor  Augustus  boasted  that  he  had  found  a 
city  of  brick  and  had  changed  it  to  one  of  marble,  but  after 
his  time  architecture  suffered  a  decline,  and  its  second 
flourishing  period  may  be  dated  from  A.D.  69.  To  this 
time  belongs  the  Colosseum,  also  called  the  Flavian  Amphi- 
theatre ;  it  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  is  suffi- 
ciently well  preserved  for  a  good  idea  to  be  formed  of  what 
it  must  have  been  when  in  its  best  estate.  The  enormous 
size  of  these  ancient  Roman  edifices  is  almost  too  much  for 
us  to  imagine,  and  the  most  extensive  of  them  all  were  the 
Thermce,  or  public  baths. 

The  Baths  of  Diocletian,  built  A.D.  303,  were  the  largest 
of  all  ;  they  had  seats  for  twenty-four  hundred  bathers. 
These  baths  were  in  reality  a  group  of  spacious  halls  of 
varied  forms,  but  all  magnificent  in  size.  The  great  hall  of 
the  Baths  of  Diocletian  was  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
long  by  eighty  feet  in  width  and  ninety-six  feet  high  ;  it 
was  converted  into  a  church  by  Michael  Angelo  and  is 
called  S.  Maria  Degli  Angeli,  or  Holy  Mary  of  the  Angels. 
Many  splendid  pictures  which  were  once  in  St.  Peter's  are 
now  in  this  church,  and  copies  of  them  made  in  mosaic  fill 
the  places  where  they  were  originally  hung. 

The  Baths  of  Caracalla  were  built  in  A.D.  217,  and 
though  they  had  seats  for  but  sixteen  hundred  bathers,  they 
were  much  more  splendid  than  the  Baths  of  Diocletian. 


ROME.  8 1 

They  were  surrounded  by  pleasure  gardens,  porticoes,  and 
a  stadium  or  race-course,  where  all  sorts  of  games  were 
held.  Some  beautiful  mosaic  pavements  have  been  taken 
from  these  baths,  and  are  now  in  the  Lateran  and  the  Villa 
Borghese  palaces ;  there  was  a  Pinacotica,  or  Fine  Art 
Gallery  here,  in  which  were  some  of  the  greatest  art  treas- 
ures of  the  world,  such  as  the  Farnese  Hercules,  the 
Farnese  Bull,  the  two  Gladiators,  and  other  famous  statues, 
besides  cameos,  bronzes,  and  sculptures,  almost  without 
end.  The  granite  basins  in  the  Piazza.  Farnese,  and  some 
green  basalt  urns  now  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  were  taken 
from  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  and,  indeed,  all  over  Rome 
there  are  objects  of  more  or  less  beauty  which  were  found 
here. 

Formerly  the  site  of  these  baths  was  like  a  beautiful 
Eden  where  Nature  made  herself  happy  in  luxuriant 
growths  of  all  lovely  things.  The  poet  Shelley  was  very 
fond  of  going  there,  and  wrote  of  it,  "  Among  the  flowery 
glades  and  thickets  of  odoriferous  blossoming  trees,  which 
are  extended  in  ever-winding  labyrinths  upon  its  immense 
platforms  and  dizzy  arches  suspended  in  the  air,"  by  which 
we  know  that  the  ruins  were  covered  with  a  soil  which  was 
fruitful  in  flowers,  vines,  and  trees  ;  but  all  these  have  been 
torn  away  in  order  to  make  the  excavations  which  were 
necessary  for  the  exploration  of  these  wonderful  baths,  and 
now  the  parts  which  remain  stand  fully  exposed  to  the 
view  of  the  curious  traveller. 

The  Roman  Triumphal  Arches  were  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic outgrowths  of  the  Imperial  period.  These  splen- 
did works  were  designed  to  perpetuate  the  fame  of  the 
emperors  and  to  recall  to  the  people  the  important  acts  of 
their  lives.  The  arch  of  Constantine  given  below  is  one  of 
the  most  famous  arches  in  Rome  (Fig.  65).  It  is  believed 
that  parts  of  it  were  in  an  arch  of  Trajan's  time,  and  some 
even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  was  originally  dedicated  to 


82 


ARCHITECTURE. 


the  earlier  emperor  and  adopted  by  Constantine  as  his  own. 
It  is  remarkably  well  preserved,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  fact  of  its  being  dedicated  to  the  first  Christian  sov- 
ereign of  Rome.  The  other  most  famous  arches  in  the  city 
are  that  of  Titus,  which  dates  from  A.D.  81,  and  that  of 
Septimius  Severus,  which  was  erected  in  honor  of  him  and 


FIG.  65. — ARCH  OF  CONSTANTINE.     Rome. 


of  his  wife,  Julia,  by  the  silversmiths  and  merchants  of  the 
Forum  Boarium,  in  which  spot  the  arch  was  raised. 

These  triumphal  arches  existed  in  all  the  countries 
where  Rome  held  sway,  and,  indeed,  this  is  true  of  all 
kinds  of  Roman  architectural  works. 

This  Arch  of  Beneventum  was  erected  in  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  by  Trajan,  when  he  repaired  the 


ROME.  83 

Appian  Way.     It  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  and  best  pre-. 
served  of  all  the  arches  of  Italy  (Fig.  66). 

All  these  arches  had  originally  groups  of  statuary  upon 
them,  for  which  they  served  merely  as  the  pedestals.  Their 
taking  the  form  of  an  arch  was  due  to  their  being  placed  in 
the  public  way,  where  it  was  necessary  to  leave  a  passage 


FIG.  66. — ARCH  OF  TRAJAN.     Beneventum. 


for  the  street.  Sometimes  they  were  placed  where  two 
roads  met,  and  a  double  arch  was  then  made.  Elaborate 
as  the  arches  often  were,  you  must  keep  in  mind  that  they 
are  only  a  part  of  the  entire  design,  and  that  the  least 
important  part  ;  the  statuary,  which  has  been  destroyed  by 
time,  being  really  the  more  striking  feature  of  the  whole. 
The  tombs  of  Rome  were  very  numerous,  and  were  an 


84 


ARCHITECTURE. 


important  element  in  Roman  architecture.     The  tomb  of 

Cecilia  Metella  is  of  importance   because  it  is  the  oldest 

remaining  building  of  Im- 
perial Rome  and  the  finest 
tomb  which  has  been  pre- 
served (Fig.  67). 

As  you  see,  the  tomb  is 
a  round  tower.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  it  was 
turned  into  a  fortress,  and 
so  much  dust  has  been  de- 
posited on  its  summit  in 
the  passing  of  time  that 
bushes  and  ivy  now  grow 
there.  Many  writers  de- 
scribe it,  and  Byron  in  his 

FIG.  67. — TOMB  OF  CECILIA  METELLA.      "  Child e      Harold"     spoke 

of    it   in    some   verses,    of 

which  the  following  is  the  beginning  : 

"  There  is  a  stern  round  tower  of  other  days, 
Firm  as  a  fortress,  with  its  fence  of  stone. 
Such  as  an  army's  baffled  strength  delays, 
Standing  with  half  its  battlements  alone, 
And  with  two  thousand  years  of  ivy  grown, 
The  garland  of  eternity,  where  wave 
The  green  leaves  over  all  by  time  o'erthrown  ; — 
What  was  this  tower  of  strength  ?  within  its  cave 
What  treasure  lay  so  lock'd,  so  hid  ? — a  woman's  grave." 

The  tomb  of  Hadrian,  now  known  as  the  Castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  is  very  interesting,  and  is  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent and  familiar  objects  in  Rome  at  the  present  day.  But 
the  tombs  called  Columbaria  were  much  in  use  in  ancient 
Rome,  and  differed  essentially  from  those  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  inasmuch  as  they  were  usually  below  the  ground, 
and  externally  had  no  architecture.  They  consisted  of 


ROME.  85 

oblong  or  square  apartments,  the  sides  of  which  were  filled 
with  small  apertures  of  the  proper  size  to  hold  an  urn  which 
contained  the  ashes  that  remained  after  a  body  had  been 
burned,  according  to  the  Roman  custom.  Some  of  these 
apartments,  especially  when  they  belonged  to  private 
families,  were  adorned  with  pilasters  and  decorated  with 
colors.  (See  Fig.  68.) 


FIG.  68. — COLUMBARIUM  NEAR  THE  GATE  OF  ST.  SEBASTIAN.     Rome. 

The  sepulchres  of  Rome  were  gradually  enlarged,  until, 
in  the  days  of  Constantine,  they  were  frequently  built  like 
small  temples  above  the  ground,  with  crypts  or  vaults 
beneath  them. 

So  little  now  remains  of  the  ancient  domestic  architect- 
ure of  Rome  that  one  is  forced  to  study  this  subject  from 
written  descriptions  collected  from  the  works  of  various 
historians,  poets,  and  other  writers.  But  from  what  we 
know  we  may  conclude  that  the  villas  and  country-houses 
were  so  constructed  as  to  be  full  of  comfort,  and  suited  to 
the  uses  for  which  they  were  built,  without  too  much  regard 
to  the  symmetry  of  the  exteriors.  The  interior  convenience 
was  the  chief  thing  to  be  considered,  and  when  finished 


86  ARCHITECTURE. 

they  must  have  often  resembled  a  collection  of  buildings  all 
joined  together,  of  various  heights  and  shapes  ;  but  within 
they  were  adapted  to  the  different  seasons,  as  some  rooms 
were  made  for  being  warm,  while  others  were  arranged  for 
coolness  ;  the  views  from  the  windows  were  also  an  impor- 
tant feature,  and,  in  short,  the  pleasure  of  the  people  living 
in  them  was  made  the  first  point  to  be  gained,  rather  than 
the  impression  upon  the  eye  of  those  who  saw  them  from 
without. 

There  Was  great  luxury  and  elegance  in  the  palaces  of 
the  noble  classes  in  ancient  Rome.  The  home  of  Dio- 
cletian at  Spalatro  was  one  of  the  most  famous  Roman 
palaces,  and  its  ruins  show  that  it  was  once  magnificent. 
This  palace  was  divided  by  four  streets  which  ran  through 
it  at  right  angles  with  each  other  and  met  in  its  centre.  Its 
entrances  were  called  the  Golden,  Iron,  and  Brazen  Gates. 
Its  exterior  architecture  was  simple  and  massive,  as  it  was 
necessary  that  it  should  serve  as  a  fortress  in  case  of  an 
attack.  Its  principal  gallery  overlooked  the  sea  ;  it  was  five 
hundred  and  fifteen  feet  long  and  twenty-four  feet  wide, 
and  was  famous  for  its  architectural  beauty  and  for  the 
views  which  it  commanded. 


CHAPTER   II. 

CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 
A.D.    328   TO   ABOUT    1400. 

I  HAVE  written  more  in  detail  concerning  Ancient  archi- 
tecture than  I  shall  do  of  that  of  later  times,  because  it 
is  best  to  be  thorough  in  studying  the  beginnings  of  things  ; 
then  we  can  make  an  application  of  our  knowledge  which 
helps  us  to  understand  the  results  of  what  has  gone  before, 
just  as  we  are  prepared  for  the  full-blown  rose  after  we  have 
seen  the  bud.  Or,  to  be  more  practical,  just  as  we  use  the 
simplest  principles  of  arithmetic  to  help  us  to  understand 
the  more  difficult  ones  ;  sometimes  we  scarcely  remember 
that  in  the  last  lessons  of  the  book  we  unconsciously  apply 
the  first  tables  and  rules  which  were  so  difficult  to  us  in  the 
beginning. 

I  shall  not  try,  because  I  have  not  space,  to  give  a  con- 
nected account  of  Christian  architecture,  but  I  shall  en- 
deavor to  give  such  an  outline  of  its  rise  and  progress  in 
various  countries  as  will  make  a  good  foundation  for  the 
knowledge  you  will  gain  from  books  which  you  will  read  in 
future. 

The  architecture  of  Italy  in  the  period  which  followed 
the  conversion  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  is  called  the 
Romanesque  order.  As  the  Christians  were  encouraged 
under  Constantine  and  became  bold  in  their  worship,  many 
basilicas  were  given  up  for  their  use.  The  bishops  held  the 


88 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  69. — INTERIOR  OF  BASILICA  OF  ST.  PAUL'S.     Rome. 


principal  place  upon  the  platform  formerly  occupied  by  the 
king  and  his  highest  officers,  and  the  priests  of  the  lower 
orders  were  ranged  around  them.  The  same  altars  which 
had  served  for  the  heathen  sacrifices  were  used  for  the  wor- 
ship of  the  true  God,  and  from  this  cause  the  word  basilica 
has  come  to  signify  a  large,  grand  church,  in  the  speech  of 
our  time. 

Among  the  early  basilicas  of  Rome  which  still  remain 
none  are  more  distinguished  than  that  of  San  Paolo  fuori 
delta  Mura,  or  St.  Paul's  without  the  Walls.  It  was  ancient, 
and  splendid  in  design  and  ornament.  In  1823  it  was 
burned,  and  has  been  rebuilt  with  great  magnificence,  but 
the  picture  above  shows  it  as  it  was  before  the  fire  (Fig.  69). 
It  was  built  about  386  A.D.  under  the  Emperors  Valen- 
tinian  II.  and  Theodosius. 


CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  89 

This  basilica  had  four  rows  of  Corinthian  columns, 
twenty  in  each  row  ;  many  of  these  pillars  were  taken  from 
more  ancient  edifices,  and  were  composed  of  very  beautiful 
marbles,  forming  by  far  the  finest  collection  of  columns  in 
the  world.  The  bronze  gates  were  cast  at  Constantinople  ; 
the  fine  paintings  and  magnificent  mosaics  with  which  it 
was  decorated  added  much  to  its  splendor.  Tradition 
taught  that  the  body  of  St.  Paul  was  buried  beneath  the 
high  altar. 

Before  the  Reformation  the  sovereigns  of  England  were 
protectors  of  this  basilica  just  as  those  of  France  were  of 
St.  John  Lateran  ;  this  gives  it  a  peculiar  interest  for 
British  people,  and  the  symbol  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter 
is  still  seen  among  its  decorations.  On  account  of  its  asso- 
ciations, San  Paolo  was  the  most  interesting,  if  not  the  most 
beautiful,  of  the  oldest  Christian  edifices  in  Rome. 

In  the  early  days  there  were  many  circular  churches 
throughout  Italy  ;  some  of  these  had  been  built  at  first  for 
tombs.  The  Christians  used  churches  of  this  form  for 
baptisms,  for  the  sacrament  for  the  dying,  burials,  and 
sometimes  for  marriage. 

The  circular  temple  of  Vesta  is  very  beautiful.  It  had 
originally  twenty  Corinthian  columns  ;  nineteen  of  which 
still  remain.  This  temple  is  not  older  than  the  time  of 
Vespasian,  and  is  not  the  famous  one  mentioned  by  Horace 
and  other  ancient  writers,  in  which  the  Palladium  was  pre- 
served— that  temple  no  longer  exists.  It  is  probable  that 
many  of  the  earliest  churches  built  by  Christians  in  Italy 
were  circular  in  form,  and  numbers  of  these  still  remain  in 
various  Italian  cities  ;  but  they  differed  from  the  ancient 
temples  of  this  form  in  their  want  of  exterior  decoration. 
The  ancient  Romans  had  used  columns,  peristyles,  and 
porticoes  ;  the  Christians  used  the  latter  only  in  a  few  in- 
stances, but  even  these  were  soon  abandoned. 

The  beautiful  Baptistery  at  Florence  was  originally  the 


90  ARCHITECTURE. 

cathedral  of  the  city.  It  is  octagonal,  or  eight-sided,  and 
this  form  is  not  infrequent  in  buildings  of  the  fourth  and 
following  centuries.  It  is  said  that  this  Baptistery  was  built 
by  Theodolinda,  who  married  Autharis,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards in  589. 

This  king  had  proposed  to  Garibald,  King  of  Bavaria, 
for  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  and  had  been  accepted. 
Autharis  grew  impatient  at  the  ceremonies  of  the  wooing, 
and  escaping  from  his  palace  joined  the  embassy  to  the 
King  of  Bavaria. 

When  they  reached  the  court  of  Garibald  and  were  re- 
ceived by  that  monarch,  Autharis  advanced  to  the  throne 
and  told  the  old  king  that  the  ambassador  before  him  was 
indeed  the  Minister  of  State  at  the  Lombard  Court,  but 
that  he  was  the  only  real  friend  of  Autharis,  and  to  him 
had  been  given  a  charge  to  report  to  the  Italian  king  con- 
cerning the  charms  of  Theodolinda.  Garibald  summoned 
his  daughter,  and  after  an  admiring  gaze  the  stranger  hailed 
her  Queen  of  Italy  and  respectfully  asked  that  she  should, 
according  to  custom,  give  a  glass  of  wine  to  the  first  of  her 
future  subjects  who  had  tendered  her  his  duty.  Her  father 
commanded  her  to  give  the  cup,  and  as  Autharis  returned 
it  to  her  he  secretly  touched  her  hand  and  then  put  his 
finger  on  his  own  lips.  At  evening  Theodolinda  told  this 
incident  to  her  nurse,  who  assured  her  that  this  handsome 
and  bold  stranger  could  have  been  none  other  than  her 
future  husband,  since  no  subject  would  venture  on  such 
conduct. 

The  ambassadors  were  dismissed,  and  some  Bavarians 
accompanied  the  Lombards  to  the  Italian  frontier.  Before 
they  separated  Autharis  raised  himself  in  his  stirrups  and 
threw  his  battle-axe  against  a  tree  with  great  skill,  exclaim- 
ing, "  Such  are  the  strokes  of  the  King  of  the  Lombards  !" 
Then  all  knew  the  rank  of  this  gallant  stranger.  The 
approach  of  a  French  army  compelled  Garibald  to  leave  his 


FIG.  70. — THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  CHARTRES. 


92  ARCHITECTURE. 

capital  ;  he  took  refuge  in  Italy,  and  Autharis  celebrated 
his  marriage  in  the  palace  of  Verona  ;  he  lived  but  one  year, 
but  in  that  time  Theodolinda  had  so  endeared  herself  to  the 
people  that  she  was  allowed  to  bestow  the  Italian  sceptre 
with  her  hand.  She  had  converted  her  husband  to  the 
Catholic  faith.  She  also  founded  the  cathedral  of  Monza 
and  other  churches  in  Lombardy  and  Tuscany,  all  of  which 
she  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist,  who  was  her  patron 
saint. 

The  cathedral  of  Monza  is  very  interesting  from  its  his- 
torical associations.  Here  is  deposited  the  famous  iron 
crown  which  was  presented  to  Theodolinda  by  Pope 
Gregory  I.  This  crown  is  made  of  a  broad  band  of  gold 
set  with  jewels,  and  the  iron  from  which  it  is  named  is  a 
narrow  circlet  inside,  said  to  have  been  made  from  one  of 
the  nails  used  in  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  and  brought  from 
Jerusalem  by  the  Empress  Helena.  This  crown  is  kept  in 
a  casket  which  forms  rhe  centre  of  the  cross  above  the  high 
altar  in  the  cathedral  of  Monza  ;  it  was  carried  away  in 
1859  by"  the  Austrians  ;  at  the  close  of  the  Italo-Prussian 
war,  in  1866,  the  Emperor  of  Austria  gave  it  to  Victor 
Emmanuel,  then  King  of  Italy.  This  crown  has  been  used 
at  the  coronation  of  thirty-four  sovereigns  ;  among  them 
were  Charlemagne,  Charles  V.,  and  Napoleon  I.  The 
latter  wore  it  at  his  second  coronation  as  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards in  1805.  He  placed  it  on  his  head  himself,  saying, 
"  God  has  given  it  to  me,  woe  to  him  who  touches  it  !" 

There  are  few  secular  buildings  of  this  period  remaining 
in  Italy,  and  Romanesque  architecture  endured  but  a  short 
time,  for  it  was  almost  abandoned  at  the  time  of  the  death 
of  Gregory  the  Great,  in  604.  During  the  next  four  and  a 
half  centuries  the  old  styles  were  dying  out  and  the  Gothic 
order  was  developing,  but  cannot  be  said  to  have  reached 
any  high  degree  of  perfection  before  the  close  of  the 
eleventh  century. 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE.  93 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

It  is  difficult  to  speak  concisely  of  Gothic  architecture 
because  there  is  so  much  that  can  be  said  of  its  origin,  and 
then  it  has  so  extended  itself  to  all  parts  of  the  world  as  to 
render  it  in  a  sense  universal.  Perhaps  Fergusson  makes  it 
as  simple  as  it  can  be  made  when  he  divides  Europe  by  a 
line  from  Memel  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea  to  Spalatro 
on  the  Adriatic,  and  then  carries  the  line  westward  to 
Fermo  and  divides  Italy  almost  as  the  forty-third  parallel 
of  latitude  divides  it.  He  then  says  that  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  or  from  about  the  seventh  to  the  fifteenth  centuries, 
the  architecture  north  and  west  of  these  lines  was  Gothic  ; 
south  and  east  it  was  Byzantine,  with  the  exception  of 
Rome,  which  always  remained  individual,  and  a  rule  unto 
herself. 

There  was  a  very  general  belief  in  all  Christian  lands 
that  the  world  would  end  in  the  year  1000  A.D.,  and  when 
this  dreaded  period  had  passed  without  that  event  happen- 
ing, men  seem  everywhere  to  have  been  seized  with  a  pas- 
sion for  erecting  stone  buildings.  An  old  chronicler  named 
Rodulphe  Glaber,  who  died  in  1045  A.D.,  relates  that  as 
early  as  the  year  1003  A.D.  so  many  churches  and  monas- 
teries of  marble  were  being  erected,  especially  in  France 
and  Italy,  "  that  the  world  appeared  to  be  putting  off  its 
old  dingy  attire  and  putting  on  a  new  white  robe.  Then 
nearly  all  the  bishops'  seats,  the  churches,  the  monasteries, 
and  even  the  oratories  of  the  villages  were  changed  for 
better  ones." 

Such  a  movement  could  not  fail  to  have  a  great  influence 
upon  architecture,  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  the  Gothic 
style  began  to  be  rapidly  developed  ;  and,  indeed,  so  far  as 
any  particular  time  may  be  fixed  for  the  beginning  of  the 
Gothic  order,  it  would  fall  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 


94  ARCHITECTURE. 

turies.  The  classic  forms,  with  their  horizontal  cornices 
and  severe  regularity,  were  then  laid  aside,  and  a  greater 
freedom  and  variety  than  had  ever  obtained  before  began 
to  make  itself  felt  in  all  architectural  designs. 

We  must  first  try  to  understand  what  are  the  distinguish- 
ing features  of  Gothic  architecture.  Perhaps  the  principal 
one  may  be  called  constructiveness  ;  which  is  to  say,  that 
in  Gothic  architecture  there  is  far  greater  variety  of  form, 
and  the  power  to  make  larger  and  more  complicated  build- 
ings than  had  been  possible  with  the  orders  which  preceded 
it.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  aim  was  to  produce  large 
edifices,  and  to  build  and  ornament  them  in  a  way  that 
would  make  them  appear  to  be  even  larger  than  they  were. 
The  early  Gothic  buildings  are  so  massive  as  to  have  a 
clumsy  effect,  because  the  architects  had  not  yet  learned 
how  to  make  these  enormous  masses  strong  and  enduring, 
and  yet  so  arranged  as  to  be  light  and  graceful  in  their 
appearance. 

A  second  striking  difference  between  the  ancient  orders 
and  the  Gothic,  is  that  in  the  former  enormous  blocks  of 
stone  or  marble  were  used  and  great  importance  was 
attached  to  this.  •  Many  ancient  works  are  called  Cyclopean 
for  this  reason.  It  does  not  make  a  building  more  beauti- 
ful to  have  it  massive,  but  it  does  make  it  grand.  Even  in 
a  less  colossal  mode  of  building  a  column  is  more  effective 
when  it  is  a  monolith,  and  an  architrave  more  beautiful 
when  its  beams  are  not  joined  too  frequently.  But  in  the 
Gothic  order  the  use  of  massive  blocks  is  largely  given  up, 
and  the  endeavor  is  to  so  arrange  smaller  materials  as  to 
display  remarkable  constructive  skill. 

A  third  and  a  very  important  feature  of  the  Gothic 
order  is  the  use  of  the  arch.  The  much-increased  construc- 
tive power  of  which  we  have  spoken  depended  very  largely 
upon  this.  The  ancients  knew  the  use  of  the  arch,  but  did 
not  like  it  because  they  thought  that  it  took  away  from  the 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


95 


FIG.  71. — CHURCH  OF  ST.  NICHOLAS.     Caen, 

repose  of  a  building.  Even  now  the  Hindoos  will  not  use 
it;  they  say,  "An  arch  never  sleeps,"  and  though  the 
Mohammedan  builders  have  used  it  in  their  country,  the 
Hindoos  cannot  overcome  their  dislike  of  it.  In  the  Gothic 
order,  however,  the  use  of  arches,  both  round  and  pointed, 
is  unending.  The  results  are  very  much  varied,  and  range 
all  the  way  from  a  grand  and  impressive  effect  to  a  sort  of 
toy-like  lightness  which  seems  more  suited  to  the  block- 
houses made  by  children  than  to  the  works  of  architects. 
The  earlier  Gothic  arches  were  round,  although  pointed 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  72. — FACADE  OF  CATHEDRAL  OF  NOTRE  DAME.    Paris. 

arches  are  occasionally  found  in  very  ancient  buildings. 
The  picture  (Fig.  71),  however,  gives  a  just  idea  of  the 
form  of  arch  most  used  until  the  introduction  of  the 
pointed  arch,  which  occurred  in  France  during  the  twelfth 
century.  Of  this  form  the  doonvays  of  the  next  cut  pre- 
sent a  fine  example  (Fig.  72). 


FIG.  73. — CLUSTERED  PILLAR. 


FIG.  75. — HINGE. 


FIG.  77. — IRON-WORK. 


FIG.  74. — BUTTRESS. 


FIG.  78. — GARGOYLE. 


98 


ARCHITECTURE. 


r-     .          J  ilk  Mi 


FIG.  76. — NAIL-HEAD. 


An  important  characteristic  of  Gothic  architecture  was 
the  fact  that  every  part  of  the  building  was  so  made  as  to 
show  its  use.  Instead  of  hiding  the  supports  they  were 
made  prominent.  If  a  pier  or  buttress  was  to  stand  a  per- 
pendicular strain,  even  the  lines  of  decoration  were  generally 
made  to  run  in  that  direction  ;  if  extra  supports  were 
needed,  they  were  not  concealed,  but 
built  in  so  as  to  show,  and  even  to  be 
prominent.  In  the  details  the  same 
feeling  was  often  shown  in  a  very  marked 
degree  ;  the  hinges  and  nails  and  locks 
of  Gothic  buildings  were  made  to  be 
seen,  and  whatever  was  needed  for  use 
was  treated  as  if  it  were  of  value  as  an 
ornament.  The  spouts  by  which  the 
water  was  carried  over  the  eaves  were  made  bold  and  com- 
paratively large,  and  carved  into  those  curious  shapes  of 
animals  and  monsters  called  gargoyles,  which  are  seen  on  so 
many  mediaeval  edifices.  Many  of  these  details  of  Gothic 
buildings  are  very  elegant,  and  serve  to-day  as  models  for 
modern  workmen.  (See  Figs.  73,  74,  75,  76,  77,  78,  79.) 

Among  the  inventions  of  Gothic  architects  the  division 
of  the  interior  into  three  aisles, 
with  the  centre  one  much  the 
highest,  was    very    important. 
By  this  arrangement  the  space 
was  made  to  appear  longer  and 
higher  than  it  really  was,  and 
what  was  lost  in  the  effect  of 
width  was  more  than  made  up  in  a  certain  elegance  of  form 
which  is  very  pleasing.     The  three  central  aisles  of  the  next 
cut  illustrate  this  arrangement  (Fig.  80). 

The  Gothic  builders  gave  loftiness  to  their  edifices  by 
the  use  of  spires  and  towers.  They  became  very  skilful  in 
constructing  them  with  buttresses  below  and  pinnacles 


FIG.  79. — SCROLL. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.  99 

above,  so  that  the  spires  should  not  detract  from  the  appar- 
ent size  of  the  buildings  to  which  they  were  attached 
(Fig.  81). 

In  the  matter  of  design  in  ornament  the  Gothic  order 
had  no  fixed  method,  except  so  far  as  its  forms  were  sym- 
bolic. Every  form  of  vegetable  design  was  employed  ;  vines 
and  leaves  were  abundant.  As  a  rule  the  use  of  human 
forms  or  animals  as  supports  to  columns  or  other  weights 


FIG.  80. — SECTION  OF  CHURCH.     Carcassone.    WITH  OUTER  AISLES  ADDED 
IN  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

was  avoided.  If  they  were  introduced  the  animals  were 
not  reproductions  of  such  as  exist,  but  the  imaginary  griffin 
or  other  monster,  and  at  times  dwarfs  or  grotesque  human 
beings,  were  represented  as  if  for  caricatures. 

Sculptured  figures  were  usually  placed  upon  a  pedestal 
either  with  or  without  niches  for  them,  and  were  not  made 
to  appear  to  be  a  part  of  the  building  itself.  The  deep 
.recesses  of  Gothic  portals,  the  pinnacles  and  niches  gave 


JOO 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  81. — SPIRES  OF  LAON  CATHEDRAL. 


opportunities  to  display  exterior  sculpture  to  great  advan- 
tage (Fig.  82).  The  interiors  were  also  appropriate  for  any 
amount  of  artistic  ornament  in  bas-reliefs  or  figures  that 
could  be  lavished  upon  them. 

The  most  original  and  effective  feature  of  ornament, 
however,  which  was  introduced  by  Gothic  architects  is  that 
of  painted  glass.  To  this  they  devoted  their  best  talent. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  say  how  beautiful  and  decorative  it 
is  ;  we  all  know  this,  and  our  only  wonder  is  that  it  was  left 
for  the  Gothic  architects  to  apply  it  to  architectural  uses. 
We  do  not  know  precisely  when  stained  or  painted  glass 
was  invented,  but  we  know  that  it  existed  as  early  as  800, 
and  came  into  very  general  use  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries. 

Before  painted  glass  was  used  windows  were  made  very 
small,  and  it  was  some  time  before  the  large,  rich  style  was 


GOTHIC   WINDOWS. 


101 


adopted.  The  following  cut  from  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris, 
gives  the  three  stages  of  the  change,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
see  them  thus  in  one  church  (Fig.  83). 

On  the  left  are  the  undivided  windows  without  mullions 
or  dividing  supports  ;  next,  at  the  right,  the  upper  window 
shows  the  form  with  one  perpendicular  mullion  and  a  cir- 
cular or  rose  window  above  the  centre  ;  lastly,  on  the  right 
of  the  lower  story  we  see  a  full  traceried  window. 

The  window  became  one  of  the  most  important  and 
characteristic  features  of  Gothic  buildings.  These  large 


~/~=^" J_^  •  -  "<-£— *• 

FIG.  82. — PORTAL  OF  THE  MINORITES'  CHURCH.      Vienna, 


IO2 


ARCHITECTURE. 


open  spaces  gave  opportunity  for  elegant  shapes  and  splen- 
did colors,  both  the  form  of  the  opening  and  the  dividing 
ribs,  or  tracery,  as  it  was  called,  being  made  with  the  ut- 
most beauty  and  grace.     The  round 
windows,  called  rose  windows  and 
wheel  windows,  were  often  exqui- 
sitely  designed,    as  the    following 
example  shows  (Fig.  84). 

The  window  is  illustrative  of  the 
influence  which  climate  may  have 
on  the  development  of  architect- 
ural style.  In  warm  countries  where 
spaces  were  left  open,  window  forms 
and  painted  glass  were,  of  course, 
never  employed  ;  but  in  more  north- 
ern lands  they  became  one  of  the 
most  marked  features  in  important 
edifices. 

A  whole  book  might  be  written 
about  these  windows  and  be  very 
interesting  also,  but  we  can  give  no 
more  space  to  them  here. 

Gothic  architecture  gradually  extended  from  the  centre 
of  Italy  to  the  most  northern  bounds  of  civilization,  and 
though  practised  by  so  many  nations,  was  as  much  the 
architectural  expression  of  a  religion  as  the  architecture  of 
a  single  ancient  nation  had  been  the  outgrowth  of  its 
peculiar  religious  belief.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
priests  and  monks  preserved  learning  in  the  midst  of  gen- 
eral darkness  and  ignorance,  and  were  the  chief  patrons  of 
all  art  which  survived  the  decline  of  the  time.  They  built 
up  the  Christian  faith  by  every  means  in  their  power.  The 
monks  were  missionaries.  They  went  to  various  countries, 
and  selecting  favorable  spots  they  founded  abbeys  ;  around 
these  abbeys  a  poor  population  settled  ;  gradually  churches 


FIG.  83. — EXTERNAL  ELEVA- 
TION, CATHEDRAL  OF  PARIS. 


THE   GOTHIC   ORDER.  103 

were  built,  and  it  frequently  happened  that  the  monks  not 
only  planned  the  work  to  be  done,  but  also  executed  it 
with  their  own  hands.  Many  of  them  were  masons  and 
builders,  and  several  bishops  were  architects.  St.  Germain, 
Bishop  of  Paris,  designed  the  church  in  that  city  now 
called  by  his  name,  and  was  also  sent  to  Angers  to  build 
another  church,  and  to  Mans  to  erect  a  monastery. 


FIG.  84. — WHEEL  WINDOW,  FROM  CATHEDRAL.      Toscanella. 

The  finest  buildings  being  thus  made  for  religious  pur- 
poses and  under  the  direction  of  the  clergy,  they  must  have 
been  as  full  an  expression  of  Christianity  as  were  the  temple- 
palaces  of  Egypt  an  expression  of  the  religion  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  when  the  kings  were  both  priests  and  sovereigns,  and 
dwelt  in  these  palaces.  And  this  was  true  as  long  as 
Gothic  art  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy  and  used  almost 
•entirely  for  religious  purposes. 


104  ARCHITECTURE. 

Later  on,  when  it  was  employed  for  civic  edifices  erected 
under  the  direction  of  laymen,  it  became  an  expression  of 
political  independence  also.  The  freedom  of  thought  which 
came  with  the  decline  of  the  feudal  system  inspired  new 
aspirations  and  imaginations  in  the  hearts  and  minds  of 
men,  and  these  found  expression  in  all  the  arts,  and  very 
especially  in  architecture.  If  we  cannot  always  admire  the 
manner  in  which  Gothic  art  was  made  to  express  these  lofty 
desires,  we  can  fully  sympathize  with  the  sentiment  which 
was  behind  it. 

The  Gothic  order  held  undisputed  sway  west  and  north 
of  the  geographical  line  of  which  we  have  spoken  until  the 
fifteenth  century.  Then  a  revival  of  classical  literature 
took  place,  and  with  this  there  arose  also  a  revival  of 
classic  art  and  architecture  ;  this  revival  is  known  as  the 
Renaissance,  or  the  new  birth,  and  the  period  of  time  is 
spoken  of  as  that  of  the  Renaissance.  The  effect  of  this 
classic  reaction  was  very  great  upon  all  the  educated  classes 
of  Europe,  and  its  influence  may  be  said  to  have  endured 
through  about  three  centuries. 

Again,  during  the  eighteenth  century,  Gothic  art  was 
revived.  A  reverence  has  grown  up  for  the  good  that 
wrestled  with  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  survived 
all  their  evils.  The  rough,  strong  manhood  of  that  time  is 
now  justly  appreciated.  Perhaps  the  feeling  in  this  direc- 
tion is  too  much  exaggerated.  While  our  regard  for  a  rude 
and  weather-stained  monument  of  the  spirit  and  architect- 
ure of  the  past  may  be  natural  and  proper,  the  imitation 
of  it  which  is  made  in  our  day  may  easily  become  absurd, 
and  is  very  rarely  suited  to  our  purposes. 

Spain  is  one  of  the  countries  which  are  on  the  Gothic 
side  of  the  geographical  line  we  have  drawn,  and  among  the 
many  splendid  edifices  in  that  country  some  of  the  finest 
are  of  the  Gothic  order.  There  is  no  national  architecture 
there,  for  though  the  Spaniards  love  art  and  its  expression 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN. 


I05 


FIG.  85. — COLLEGIATE  CHURCH,  TORO.     From   Villa  Amil. 

passionately,  they  have  themselves  invented  almost  nothing 
which  is  artistic. 

But  while  it  is  true  that  the  Spaniards  invented  no 
styles,  they  did  modify  those  which  they  adopted,  and 
there  are  peculiarities  in  the  Spanish  use  and  arrangement 
of  the  Gothic  order  which  give  it  new  elements  in  the  eyes 
of  those  who  understand  architecture  scientifically.  To  the 
uneducated  also  it  appears  to  have  a  personality  of  its  own, 
something  that  is  suited  to  Spain  and  the  Spaniards  ;  so 
that,  while  we  know  that  Spanish  Gothic  architecture  was 
borrowed  from  France  and  Germany,  we  yet  feel  that  if  the 
cathedrals  of  Paris  and  Cologne  were  to  be  put  down  in 
Valencia  or  Madrid  they  would  look  like  strangers,  and  not 
at  all  well-contented  ones  at  that  ;  and  if  the  churches  of 
Toledo  or  Burgos  were  copied  precisely  in  any  other 


io6 


ARCHITECTURE. 


country,  they  would  have  an  air  of  being  quite  out  of  keep- 
ing with  everything  around  them  (Fig.  85). 

We  call  the  architecture  of  Spain  before  1066  the 
"  Early  Spanish,"  and  from  that  time  the  Gothic  order  pre- 
vailed during  nearly  three  centuries. 

Meantime  in  the  south 
of  Spain  the  Moresco  or 
Moorish  order  had  sprung 
up,  of  which  Fig.  86 
gives  an  example.  It 
was  gradually  adopted  to 
a  limited  extent,  until 
finally  some  specimens  of 
it  existed  in  almost  every 
province  of  the  country. 
The  Gothic  order  was  af- 
fected by  it,  inasmuch  as 
the  richness  of  ornament 
of  the  Moorish  order  so 
pleased  the  taste  of  the 
Spaniards  that  their  archi- 
tects allowed  themselves 
to  indulge  in  a  certain 
Moorish  manner  of  treat- 
ing the  Gothic  style.  We 
cannot  describe  these  dif- 
ferences in  words,  but 
Figs.  86  and  87  will  make 
it  plain. 

As  has  been  said,  the  interior  decoration  of  all  Gothic 
churches  was  very  rich  and  abundant.  It  is  also  true  that 
all  church  furniture  was  made  with  great  care  ;  the  matter 
of  symbolism  was  carefully  considered,  and  each  design 
made  to  indicate  the  use  of  the  article  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended. No  altar,  preaching-desk,  stall,  chair,  or  screen 


FIG.  86. — ST.  PAUL.    Saragossa. 


THE   GOTHIC   ORDER. 


107 


was  made  without  due  attention  to  every  detail,  and  the 
endeavor  to  have  it  in  harmony  with  its  use  and  its  position 
in  the  church.  The  following  cut  shows  a  rood-screen, 
which  was  the  kind  of  screen  that  was  placed  before  the 
crucifixion  over  the  high  altar  (Fig.  88). 

The  fantastic  sculptures  and  wealth  of  ornament  in 
Gothic  decorations  pro- 
duce a  confusing  effect 
on  the  brain  and  the 
eye  if  we  look  at  the 
whole  carelessly  ;  but 
when  we  remember  that 
each  separate  design  has 
its  especial  meaning  we 
are  interested  to  exam- 
ine them,  and  we  find 
that  the  variety  of  forms 
is  almost  innumerable. 
Where  there  are  trailing 
vines  and  lions,  faith  is 
indicated  ;  roses  and 
pelicans  are  the  symbols 
of  mercy  and  divine 
love  ;  dogs  and  ivy,  of 
truth  ;  lambs,  of  gentle- 
ness, innocence,  and  sub- 
mission ;  fishes  are  an 
emblem  of  water  and  FIG.  87.— CLOISTER.  Tarazona. 

the  rite  of  baptism  ;  the 

dragon,  of  sin  and  paganism  ;  a  serpent,  too,  typifies  sin, 
and  when  wound  around  a  globe  it  indicates  the  power 
of  evil  over  the  whole  world  ;  a  hind  or  hart  signifies 
solitude  ;  the  dove,  purity  ;  the  olive,  peace  ;  the  palm,, 
martyrdom  ;  the  lily,  purity  and  chastity  ;  the  lamp, 
lantern,  or  taper,  piety  ;  fire  and  flames,  zeal  and  the  suffer- 


•io8 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  88. — ROOD-SCREEN,  FROM  THE  MADELEINE.     Troyes. 


ings  of  martyrdom  ;  a  flaming  heart,  fervent  piety  and 
spiritual  love  ;  a  shell,  pilgrimage  ;  a  standard  or  banner, 
victory  ;  and  so  on,  and  on,  we  find  that  meaning  and 
thought  were  worked  out  in  every  bit  of  Gothic  ornament, 
and  that  what  at  first  appears  so  wild  and  hap-hazard  is  full 
of  a  method  which  well  repays  one  for  the  study  of  it. 

The  Gothic  order  was  also  used  in  building  municipal 


THE   CASTLE   OF   WARTBURG. 


109 


FIG.  89. — PALACE  OF  WARTBURG. 


edifices,  palaces,  and  even  for  the  purposes  of  domestic 
architecture.  The  finest  remains  of  this  kind  are  in  Ger- 
many, the  most  interesting  of  them  all  being  the  castle  on 
the  Wartburg.  This  castle  is  large,  grand,  and  imposing. 
It  is  also  well  preserved.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  discovered 
that  many  windows  and  arched  galleries,  of  very  beautiful 
style,  had  been  filled  up,  and  that  frescoes  and  other  deco- 


I IO  ARCHITECTURE. 

rations  had  been  covered.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar 
caused  its  restoration,  and  the  ancient  halls  are  now  quite 
in  their  original  state.  (See  Fig.  89.) 

There  are  very  interesting  legends  and  historical  facts 
connected  with  this  castle  of  Wartburg.  As  early  as  1204 
to  1208,  when  Hermann,  Count  of  Thuringia,  dwelt  there 
with  his  wife,  the  Countess  Sophia,  it  is  related  that  the 
'  War  of  the  Minstrels"  occurred.  This  was  a  contest 
between  several  of  the  wandering  minstrels  or  Minnesingers 
of  that  time  as  to  who  should  excel,  and  he  who  failed  was 
to  suffer  death.  The  penalty  fell  on  Henry  of  Ofter- 
dingen  ;  in  his  despair  he  begged  the  Countess  to  gain  him 
a  respite  so  that  he  could  go  for  his  master,  Klingsor.  Her 
prayer  was  granted,  and  in  the  end  Henry  of  Ofterdingen 
saved  his  head,  though  the  legend  says  that  Satan  aided 
him.  This  story  is  without  doubt  founded  on  truth,  but  has 
much  of  fancy  mingled  with  it. 

The  next  remarkable  story  connected  with  Wartburg  is 
the  residence  here  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  as  she  is 
called.  This  wonderful  woman  was  the  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Hungary,  and  when  four  years  old  she  was  be- 
trothed to  Prince  Louis,  son  of  Count  Hermann,  mentioned 
above.  At  this  tender  age  she  was  given  to  his  family. 
Her  life  at  Wartburg  was  very  remarkable,  and  I  advise 
you  to  read  about  it,  for  it  is  too  long  to  be  given  here.  At 
last,  her  husband  having  died  in  Jerusalem,  where  he  had 
gone  with  the  Crusaders,  his  brother  Henry  drove  her  out 
with  her  children  to  seek  a  home  where  she  could.  She 
suffered  much,  and  supported  herself  by  spinning  wool. 
But  when  the  knights  who  had  gone  with  her  husband  re- 
turned, they  obliged  Henry  to  give  the  son  of  Elizabeth  his 
rights.  She  received  the  city  of  Marburg  as  her  dower,  but 
she  did  not  live  long.  Miraculous  things  are  told  of  her, 
and  she  is  often  represented  by  painters  and  sculptors. 

Again,  Wartburg   was   the   residence    of   a   remarkable 


THE   GOTHIC   ORDER   IN   ITALY. 


Ill 


person  ;  for  Luther  dwelt  there  after  escaping  from  the  Diet 

at  Worms.      He  was  called   Ritter  George,  and  the  room 

where  he  wrote  and  spent 

much  of  his  time  is  shown 

to  travellers  who  visit  the 

castle. 

We  come  back  now  to 
Italy,  the  country  we  left 
when  we  passed  from  the 
Romanesque  to  Gothic 
architecture.  In  the  north 
of  Italy  where  the  Gothic 
order  had  prevailed  after 
the  eleventh  century,  it 
had  been  modified  by  the 
Romanesque  influences  and 
Roman  traditions,  in  some 
such  degree  as  the  Moors 
had  influenced  the  Gothic 
order  in  Spain.  But,  on  the 
whole,  the  mediaeval  build- 
ings of  Northern  Italy 
were  Gothic  in  style. 

Rome,  as  we  said,  was 
individual,  and  her  art  re- 
mained Roman  or  Roman- 
esque up  to  the  date  of  the 
Renaissance.  In  Southern 
Italy,  as  we  shall  see,  the 
architecture  was  of  the  By- 
zantine order. 

Among  the  most  inter- 
esting edifices  of  the  Middle 
Ages  are  the  Italian  towers. 
They  were  frequently  quite  FIG.  90.— TOWER  OF  CREMONA. 


112  ARCHITECTURE. 

separate  from  the  churches  and  were  built  for  various  pur- 
poses. Seme  of  them  were  bell  towers,  and  such  a  tower 
was  called  a  campanile.  Others  were  in  some  way  associated 
with  the  civic  power  of  the  cities  which  built  them  ;  but  the 
largest  number  were  for  religious  uses. 

The  campanile  is  always  square  at  the  bottom  and  for 
some  distance  up,  and  then  is  frequently  changed  to  an 
octagonal  or  circular  form  and  finished  with  a  slender  spire 
or  ornamental  design. 

Fig.  90  shows  one  of  the  finest  square  towers  in 
all  Italy.  It  was  built  in  1296  to  commemorate  a  peace 
after  a  long  war.  It  is  three  hundred  and  ninety-six  feet 
high.  It  has  little  beauty  in  the  lower  two  thirds  ;  above 
that  it  is  more  pleasing,  but  the  two  parts  do  not  look  as  if 
they  belonged  together.  The  tower  of  Italy,  however, 
which  is  most  beloved  and  most  famous  is  that  of  Giotto, 
beside  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  (See  Fig.  102.) 

Another  striking  feature  of  Gothic  art  in  Northern  Italy 
is  seen  in  the  porches  attached  to  the  churches.  They  are 
commonly  on  the  side,  and  as  they  were  usually  added  after 
the  rest  of  the  church  was  finished,  and  frequently  do  not 
correspond  to  the  rest  in  style,  they  look  as  if  they  were 
parts  of  some  other  churches  and  had  come  on  a  visit  to 
those  beside  which  they  stand.  In  Italy  the  main  portion 
of  these  porches  always  rested  on  lions. 

A  porch  at  Bergamo  is  one  of  the  finest,  and  certainly 
its  details  are  exquisite,  and  the  whole  structure  is  beautiful 
when  it  is  considered  separately  ;  but  as  a  part  of  the  church 
it  loses  its  effect,  and  seems  to  be  pushed  against  it  as  a 
chair  is  placed  beside  the  wall  of  a  room. 

Some  of  the  mediaeval  town-halls  are  still  well  preserved, 
and  a  few  of  them  are  truly  beautiful.  Perhaps  the  Broletto 
at  Como  is  as  fine  a  remnant  of  civic  architecture  as  exists 
in  Northern  Italy.  It  is  not  very  large  and  is  faced  with 
party-colored  marbles. 


114  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  architecture  of  Venice  and  the  Venetian  Province 
must  be  treated  almost  as  if  it  were  outside  of  Italy,  because 
it  differs  so  much  from  that  of  other  portions  of  that 
country.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  most  pros- 
perous portion  of  Italy.  Its  architecture  was  influenced  by 
the  Byzantine  and  Saracenic  orders,  but  is  not  like  them  ; 
neither  is  it  like  that  of  Northern  Italy  ;  in  fact,  it  is  Vene- 
tian, being  Gothic  in  principle,  but  treated  with  Eastern 
feeling  and  decorated  in  Oriental  taste  ;  and  this  was  quite 
natural  since  the  Venetians  had  extensive  traffic  and  inter- 
course with  the  nations  of  the  East. 

There  are  few  places  in  the  world,  of  no  greater  extent, 
about  which  so  many  interesting  associations  cluster  as. 
about  the  Piazza,  of  St.  Mark's  in  Venice.  On  one  side 
stands  the  great  basilica,  and  not  far  away  are  the  cam- 
panile and  the  clock-tower  ;  the  ancient  Doge's  Palace,  and 
the  beautiful  Library  of  St.  Mark,  of  later  date,  are  near  by, 
with  their  treasures  of  art  and  literature  to  increase  the 
value  of  the  whole.  It  is  a  spot  dear  to  all,  and  especially 
so  to  English-speaking  people,  since  the  poetry  of  Shake- 
speare has  given  them  a  reason  for  personal  interest  in  it 
under  all  its  varying  aspects.  At  some  hours  of  the  day 
St.  Mark's  seems  as  if  it  were  the  very  centre  of  the  earth, 
to  which  men  of  all  nations  are  hastening  ;  again  this  bustle 
dies  away,  and  one  could  fancy  it  to  be  forgotten  and  de- 
serted of  all  mankind,  though  it?  silence  is  eloquent  in  its 
power  to  recall  the  great  events  of  the  Venice  of  the  past 
(See  Figs.  91,  105,  and  106.) 

St.  Mark's  Basilica  is  called  Byzantine  in  its  order,  and 
in  a  general  way  the  term  is  applicable  to  it  ;  but  on  care- 
ful examination  there  are  so  many  differences  between  it 
and  a  purely  Byzantine  church  that  it  would  be  more  prop- 
erly described  by  the  name  Italian  or  Venetian  Byzantine. 
Its  five  domes  were  added  to  its  original  form  late  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  though  there  are  many  Eastern  mosques 


THE    GOTHIC   ORDER   IN   ITALY.  115 

with  this  number,  they  are  not  arranged  like  those  of  St. 
Mark's,  and  so  have  quite  a  different  appearance.  The 
portico  with  its  five  entrances  is  not  European  in  form,  but 
the  details  of  these  deep  recesses  are  more  like  the  Norman 
architecture  than  like  anything  Byzantine. 

It  is  scarcely  profitable  to  carry  this  examination  farther, 
for,  in  a  word,  the  whole  effect  of  St.  Mark's  is  very  impres- 
sive from  the  exterior,  and  the  interior  is  so  beautiful  in  its 
subdued  light  and  shadow  that  one  is  satisfied  to  enjoy  it 
without  criticising  it.  and  many  critics  consider  it  one  of  the 
finest  interiors  of  \\  estern  Europe. 


FIG.  92. — SECTION  OF  SAN  MINIATO.     Near  Florence, 

The  same  difficulty  which  one  finds  in  defining  or  class- 
ing the  architecture  of  Venice  is  met  in  that  of  Southern 
Italy,  which  is,  Byzantine  and  not  Byzantine,  but,  in  fact, 
is  that  order  so  changed  that  the  name  of  Byzantine- 
Romanesque  seems  better  suited  to  it  than  any  other  term 
could  be.  We  shall  mention  but  a  single  example  of  this 
order,  and  pass  to  the  true  Byzantine  style. 

The  church  of  San  Miniato,  which  overlooks  the  city  of 
Florence,  was  built  in  1013,  and  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
as  well  as  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  churches  of  the  Byzan- 
tine-Romanesque order  in  Italy.  It  is  not  large,  but  the 


n6 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  93. — SAN  GIOVANNI  DEGLI  EREMITI.     Palermo. 

proportions  are  so  good  as  to  make  it  very  pleasing  ;  the 
pillars  are  so  nearly  classic  in  design  that  they  were  prob- 
ably taken  from  some  earlier  building,  and  the  effect  of 
colored  panelling  both  within  and  without  is  very  satisfac- 
tory to  the  eye.  (See  Fig.  92.) 

There  arose  in  Sicily  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  after 
the  Norman  Conquest,  a  remarkable  style  of  architecture. 
It  belongs  to  Christian  art  because  it  was  used  by  Christians 
to  construct  places  of  Christian  worship  ;  but,  in  truth,  it 
was  a  combination  of  Greek  spirit  with  Roman  form  and 
Saracenic  ornament.  It  makes  an  interesting  episode  in  the 
study  of  architecture.  I  shall  give  one  picture  of  a  church 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE.  1 1/ 

built  by  King  Roger  for  Christian  use  as  late  as  1 132,  which, 
except  for  the  tower,  might  well  be  mistaken  for  a  purely 
Oriental  edifice  (Fig.  93). 

BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 

This  term  strictly  belongs  to  the  order  which  arose  in 
the  East  after  Constantinople  was  made  the  Roman  capital. 
It  is  especially  the  order  of  the  Greek  Church  as  contrasted 
with  the  Latin  or  Roman  Church.  It  would  make  all  archi- 
tectural writing  and  talking  much  clearer  if  this  fact  were 
kept  in  mind  ;  but,  unfortunately,  wherever  some  special  bit 
of  carving  in  an  Oriental  design  or  a  little  colored  decoration 
is  used — as  is  frequently  done  in  the  modern  composite 
styles  of  building — the  term  Byzantine  is  carelessly  applied, 
until  it  is  difficult  for  one  not  learned  in  architecture  to  dis- 
cover what  the  Byzantine  order  is,  or  where  it  belongs. 

We  have  spoken  of  its  influence  and  partial  use  in  Italy. 
Now  we  will  consider  it  in  its  home  and  its  purity.  Before 
the  time  of  Constantine  the  architecture  used  at  Rome  was 
employed  at  Jerusalem,  Constantinople,  and  other  Eastern 
cities  which  were  under  Roman  rule  and  influence.  Be- 
tween the  time  of  Constantine  and  the  death  of  Justinian, 
in  A.D.  565,  the  true  ancient  Byzantine  order  was  devel- 
oped. The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  was  the 
greatest  and  the  last  product  of  the  pure  old  Byzantine 
style. 

From  that  time  the  order  employed  may  be  called  the 
Neo-Byzantine.  This  was  a  decline  of  art  as  much  as  the 
history  of  Greece  and  the  Eastern  Empire  during  the  same 
period  (about  600  to  1453)  was  the  history  of  the  decline 
and  extinction  of  a  power  that  had  once  been  as  great  among 
governments  as  St.  Sophia  (Fig.  94)  was  among  churches. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  Byzantine  architecture  is  the 
use  of  the  dome,  which  is  the  most  important  part  of  its 


ST.   SOPHIA. 


design.     A  grand  central  dome  rises  over  the  principal  por- 
tion of  the  edifice,  and  just  as  in  other  orders  courts  and 
colonnades  were  added  to  the  simpler  basilica  form  in  the 
ground    plan     of    the 
churches,    so    in    the 
Byzantine  order  lesser 
domes     and      cupolas 
were  added  above  un- 
til almost  any  number 
of  them  was  admissi- 
ble,    and     they    were 
placed  with    little  at- 
tention to  regularity  o) 
symmetry  of  arrange- 
ment. 

As  domes  were  the 
chief  exterior  feature, 
so  the  profuse  orna- 
mentation was  most 
noticeable  in  the  inte- 
rior. The  walls  were 
richly  decorated  with 
variegated  marbles  ; 

the  vaulted  ceilings  of  the  domes  and  niches  were  lined 
with  brilliant  mosaics  ;  the  columns,  friezes,  cornices,  door 
and  window-frames,  and  the  railings  to  galleries  were  of 
marbles,  and  entirely  covered  with  ornamental  designs 
(Figs.  95  and  96). 

The  historian  Gibbon  describes  the  building  of  St. 
Sophia  and  its  decorations.  He  tells  us  that  the  emperor 
went  daily,  clad  in  a  linen  tunic,  to  oversee  the  work.  The 
architect  was  named  Anthemius  ;  he  employed  ten  thousand 
workmen,  and  they  were  all  paid  each  evening.  When  it 
was  completed  and  Justinian  \vas  present  at  its  consecra- 
tion, he  exclaimed,  "  Glory  be  to  God,  who  hath  thought 


FGI.  95. — LOWER  ORDER  OF  ST.  SOPHIA. 


I2O 


ARCHITECTURE. 


me  worthy  to  accomplish  so  great   a  work  ;  I   have  van- 
quished thee,  O  Solomon  !" 

Paul  Silentiarius  was  a  poet  ;  he  saw  St.  Sophia  in  all  its 
glory  and  describes  it  with  enthusiasm.  It  was  very  rich  in 
variegated  marbles.  He  mentions  the  following  :  I.  The 
Carystian,  pale  with  iron  veins.  2.  The  Phrygian,  two 
sorts,  both  of  a  rosy  hue  ;  one  with  a  white  shade,  the 
other  purple  with  silver  flowers.  3.  The  Porphyry  of 
Egypt,  with  small  stars.  4.  The  green  marble  of  Laconia. 
5.  The  Carian,  from  Mount  lassis,  with  oblique  veins,  white 

and  red.  6.  The  Lydian,  pale, 
with  a  red  flower.  7.  The 
African  or  Mauntanian,  of  a 
gold  or  saffron  hue.  8.  The 
Celtic,  black,  with  white  veins. 
9.  The  Bosphoric,  white,  with 
black  edges.  There  were  also 
the  Proconnesian,  which  made 
the  pavement  ;  and  the  Thes- 
salian  and  Molossian  in  differ- 
ent parts. 

This   array  of  marbles  was 
made   even   more  effective   by 
the  beautiful  columns  brought 
from  older  temples.     The  mo- 
saics were  rich  in  color,  and  numerous,  and  many  parts  of 
the  church  were  covered  with  gold,  so  that  the  effect  was 
dazzling. 

Those  objects  that  were  most  sacred  were  of  solid  gold 
and  silver,  while  such  as  were  less  important  were  only 
covered  with  gold-leaf.  In  the  sanctuary  there  was  alto- 
gether forty  thousand  pounds  of  silver  ;  the  vases  and  ves- 
sels used  about  the  altar  were  of  pure  gold  and  studded 
with  gems.  Its  whole  cost  was  almost  beyond  belief.  At 
the  close  of  his  description  Gibbon  says:  "A  magnificent 


FIG.  96. — UPPER  ORDER  OK 
ST.  SOPHIA. 


H 


122  ARCHITECTURE. 

temple  is  a  laudable  monument  of  taste  and  religion,  and 
the  enthusiast  who  entered  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia  might 
be  tempted  to  suppose  that  it  was  the  residence  or  even  the 
workmanship  of  the  Deity.  Yet  how  dull  is  the  artifice, 
how  insignificant  is  the  labor,  if  it  be  compared  with  the 
formation  of  the  vilest  insect  that  crawls  upon  the  surface 
of  the  temple  !" 

Of  course,  individual  taste  must  largely  influence  the 
opinion  regarding  the  beauty  of  any  work  of  art,  but  to  me 
St.  Sophia,  which  is  the  chief  example  of  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture, is  far  less  beautiful  and  less  grand  than  the  finest 
Gothic  cathedrals.  Comparatively  little  attention  was  paid 
to  the  elegance  and  decoration  of  the  exterior  in  the 
Eastern  edifices,  while  the  interiors,  in  spite  of  all  their 
riches,  have  a  flat  and  unrelieved  effect.  Probably  the 
chief  reason  for  this  is  that  color  is  substituted  for  relief — 
that  is  to  say,  in  Gothic  architecture  heavy  mouldings  and 
panellings,  though  of  the  same  color  as  the  walls  them- 
selves, yet  produce  a  marvellous  effect  of  light  and  shadow, 
and  even  lend  an  element  of  perspective  to  various  parts  of 
the  building.  In  the  place  of  these  mouldings  flat  bands  of 
color  are  often  used  in  the  Byzantine  order,  and  the  whole 
result  is  much  weakened,  though  a  certain  gorgeousness 
comes  from  the  color.  Another  cause  of  disappointment  in 
St.  Sophia  is  the  absence  of  painted  glass.  At  the  same 
time,  and  in  spite  of  these  defects,  St.  Sophia  is  grand  and 
beautiful — but  not  solemn  and  impressive  in  comparison 
with  the  dim  cathedral  aisles  of  many  Gothic  churches  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  (See  Fig.  97.) 

The  Romanesque  and  Byzantine  styles  came  at  last  to 
be  so  mingled  that  it  would  be  folly  to  attempt  to  separate 
their  influence,  but  the  Byzantine  had  much  more  origi- 
nality, and  left  a  far  wider  mark. 

Among  the  most  noted  examples  of  the  latter  style, 
beside  St.  Sophia  and  St.  Mark's,  are  the  church  of  St. 


SARACENIC    ARCHITECTURE.  123 

Vitale  at  Ravenna,  the  cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  built  by  Charlemagne  about  800  A.D.. 
and  the  church  of  the  Mother  of  God  at  Constantinople. 

SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  speaking  of  Saracenic  architecture  I  will  first  explain 
that  it  is  one  with  the  Moresco  or  Moorish  order  of  which 
I  spoke  in  connection  with  Spain.  The  only  difference  is 
that  the  earliest  Mohammedan  conquerors  of  Spain  are  said 
to  have  come  from  ancient  Mauri  or  Mauritania  and  were 
called  Moors,  while  the  name  of  Saraceni,  which  means 
"  the  Easterns,"  was  also  given  to  them.  Thus  the 
Mohammedan  architecture  in  Spain  is  called  both  Moresco, 
or  Moorish,  and  Saracenic.  Again,  it  is  also  called 
Arabian,  but  I  think  this  is  the  least  correct,  since  the 
Easterns  who  went  to  Spain  were  not  so  universally  Arabian 
as  to  warrant  this  name.  When  we  speak  of  Moresco  or 
Moorish  architecture  we  speak  of  Spain  ;  but  the  term 
Saracenic  is  used  for  Mohammedan  architecture  in  all 
countries  where  it  is  found,  and  is  a  just  term,  for  they  are 
Eastern  or  Oriental  lands. 

In  absolute  fact,  Saracenic  architecture  is  that  of  the 
followers  of  "  the  Prophet,"  as  Mohammed  is  called,  and 
would  be  more  suitably  named  if  it  were  called  Moham- 
medan architecture,  or  the  architecture  of  Islam. 

Mohammed  was  born  at  Mecca  A.D.  570,  but  it  was  not 
until  611  that  he  was  commissioned,  as  he  believed,  to  build 
up  a  new  faith  and  a  new  church.  At  first  his  followers 
were  so  few  and  so  mingled  with  other  sects  and  tribes  in 
their  outward  life  that  they  had  no  distinctive  art.  It  was 
not  until  A.D.  876,  when  the  ruler  Ibn-Touloun  commenced 
his  splendid  mosque  at  Cairo,  that  the  Mohammedans  could 
claim  any  architecture  as  their  own.  It  is  very  interesting 
to  know  that  there  were  pointed  arches  in  this  mosque, 


124 


ARCHITECTURE. 


probably  two  centuries,  at  least,  earlier  than  they  were  used 
in  England,  for  it  is  generally  believed  that  they  were  first 
used  there  in  the  rebuilding  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  after 
it  was  burned  in  1174.  When,  however,  the  Saracenic 
order  was  fully  established  it  was  so  individual  and  so  differ- 
ent from  all  other  architecture  that  there  is  no  mistaking  it 
for  that  of  any  other  religion  or  nation  than  that  of 
Mohammed  and  his  followers. 


FIG.  98. — MOSQUE  OF  KAITBEY. 


SARACENIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


12$ 


FIG.  99. — THE  CALL  TO  PRAYER. 

The  picture  of  the  mosque  of  Kaitbey  shows  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  elegant  mosques  of  the  East.  It  is  just 
outside  the  walls  of  Cairo,  and  is  quite  modern,  having  been 
built  in  1463.  This  view  of  it  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  a  fine  mosque  and  shows  the  minaret  or 
tower,  which  is  so  important  in  a  mosque,  to  good  advan- 
tage (Fig.  98). 

These  minarets  are  constantly  used  for  the  many  calls 
to  prayer  which  are  made  throughout  the  day  and  night. 
The  person  who  makes  these  calls  is  styled  "  the  Muezzin," 


126  ARCHITECTURE. 

and  is  usually  blind.  Several  times  during  the  day  he 
ascends  the  minaret  and  calls  out  in  a  loud  and  melodious 
tone,  "  God  is  most  great  ;  there  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and 
I  testify  that  Mohammed  is  Allah's  prophet  !  Come  to 
prayer  !  Come  to  security  !  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep  !" 
This  is  several  times  repeated  and  is  called  the  Adan. 

The  form  of  words  used  for  the  night  varies  a  little, 
ending,  "  There  is  no  God  but  Allah.  He  has  no  com- 
panion !  To  Him  belongs  dominion,  etc.;"  this  is  called 
the  Ula.  The  call  made  an  hour  before  day  is  the  Ebed, 
and  praises  the  perfection  of  God.  When  one  is  sleeping 
near  enough  to  a  minaret  to  hear  the  muezzin's  voice  it  is  a 
pleasant  sound  and  helps  one  to  realize  that  the  care  of 
God  is  ever  about  him  ;  the  clear,  Christian  bell  can  be 
heard  by  more  people,  and  this  was  originally  intended  as  a 
call  to  prayer.  (See  Fig.  99.) 

The  principal  homes  of  Saracenic  architecture  are  Syria, 
Egypt,  Mecca,  Barbary,  Spain,  Sicily,  Turkey,  Persia,  and 
India.  There  are  many  very  interesting  mosques  and 
minarets  that  might  be  mentioned  had  we  space,  but  I  can 
speak  only  of  the  mosque  of  Cordova,  which  is  universally 
admitted  to  be  the  finest  Saracenic  edifice  in  the  world 
(Fig.  100),  and  shall  quote  a  part  of  the  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  it  given  by  De  Amicis  in  his  delightful  book  called 
"  Spain  and  the  Spaniards." 

This  mosque  was  commenced  by  the  Caliph  Abd-er- 
Rahman  in  786,  and  was  completed  by  his  son  HeshS.ni, 
who  died  796.  The  great  Caliph  declared  that  he  would 
build  a  mosque  which  should  exceed  all  others  in  the  world 
and  be  the  Mecca  of  the  West.  De  Amicis,  after  describ- 
ing the  garden  which  surrounds  the  mosque,  enters,  and 
then  goes  on  as  follows  :  "  Imagine  a  forest,  fancy  yourself 
in  the  thickest  portion  of  it,  and  that  you  can  see  nothing 
but  the  trunks  of  trees.  So,  in  this  mosque,  on  whatever 
side  you  look,  the  eye  loses  itself  among  the  columns.  It 


THE    MOSQUE   OF   CORDOVA. 


127 


is  a  forest  of  marble  whose  confines  one  cannot  discover. 
You  follow  with  your  eye,  one  by  one,  the  very  long  rows 
of  columns  that  interlace  at  every  step  with  numberless 
other  rows,  and  you  reach  a  semi-obscure  background,  in 
which  other  columns  still  seem  to  be  gleaming.  There  are 
nineteen  naves,  which  extend  in  every  direction,  traversed 
by  thirty-three  others,  supported  (among  them  all)  by  more 


ifl.  100. — EXTERIOR  OF  THE  SANCTUARY  IN  THE  MOSQUE  OF  CORDOVA. 


than  nine  hundred  columns  of  porphyry,  jasper,  breccia, 
and  marbles  of  every  color.  Each  column  upholds  a  small 
pilaster,  and  between  them  runs  an  arch  (see  plate  above), 
and  a  second  one  extends  from  pilaster  to  pilaster,  the 
latter  placed  above  the  former,  and  both  of  them  in  the 
shape  of  a  horseshoe  ;  so  that,  in  imagining  the  columns  to 
be  the  trunks  of  so  many  trees,  the  arches  represent  the 
branches,  and  the  similitude  of  the  mosque  to  a  forest  is 
complete.  .  .  .  How  much  variety  there  is  in  that  edifice 


128  ARCHITECTURE. 

which  at  first  sight  seems  so  uniform  !  The  proportions  of 
the  columns,  the  designs  of  the  capitals,  the  forms  of  the 
arches  change,  one  might  say,  at  every  step.  The  majority 
of  the  columns  are  old,  and  were  taken  from  the  Arabs  of 
Northern  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Roman  Africa,  and  some  are 
said  to  have  belonged  to  a  temple  of  Janus,  on  the  ruins  of 
which  was  built  the  church  that  the  Arabs  destroyed  in 
order  to  erect  the  mosque.  Above  several  of  the  capitals 
one  can  still  see  traces  of  the  crosses  that  were  cut  on  them, 
which  the  Arabs  broke  with  their  chisels.  ...  I  stopped 
for  a  long  time  to  look  at  the  ceiling  and  walls  of  the  prin- 
cipal chapel,  the  only  part  of  the  mosque  that  is  quite  in- 
tact. It  is  a  dazzling  gleam  of  crystals  of  a  thousand  colors, 
a  network  of  arabesques,  which  puzzles  the  mind,  and  a 
complication  of  bas-reliefs,  gildings,  ornaments,  minutiae  of 
design  and  coloring,  of  a  delicacy,  grace,  and  perfection 
sufficient  to  drive  the  most  patient  painter  distracted.  .  .  . 
You  might  turn  a  hundred  times  to  look  at  it,  and  it  would 
only  seem  to  you,  in  thinking  it  over,  a  mingling  of  blue, 
red,  green,  gilded  and  luminous  points,  or  a  very  intricate 
embroidery  changing  continually,  with  the  greatest  rapidity, 
both  design  and  coloring.  Only  from  the  fiery  and  inde- 
fatigable imagination  of  the  Arabs  could  such  a  perfect 
miracle  of  art  emanate.  .  .  .  Such  is  the  mosque  of  to-day. 
But  what  must  it  have  been  in  the  time  of  the  Arabs?  It 
was  not  surrounded  by  a  wall,  but  open,  so  that  one  could 
catch  a  glimpse  of  the  garden  from  every  part  of  it  ;  and 
from  the  garden  one  could  see  to  the  end  of  the  long  naves, 
and  the  air  was  full  of  the  fragrance  of  oranges  and  flowers. 
The  columns  which  now  number  less  than  a  thousand  were 
then  fourteen  hundred  ;  the  ceiling  was  of  cedar-wood  and 
larch,  sculptured  and  enamelled  in  the  finest  manner  ;  the 
walls  were  trimmed  with  marble  ;  the  light  of  eight  hundred 
lamps,  filled  with  perfumed  oil,  made  all  the  crystals  in  the 
mosaics  gleam,  and  produced  on  the  pavements,  arches,  and 


THE   ALHAMBRA.  129 

walls  a  marvellous  play  of  color  and  reflection.  '  A  sea  of 
splendors,'  sang  a  poet,  '  filled  this  mysterious  recess  ;  the 
ambient  air  was  impregnated  with  aromas  and  harmonies, 
and  the  thoughts  of  the  faithful  wandered  and  lost  them- 
selves in  the  labyrinth  of  columns  which  gleamed  like  lances 
in  the  sun.'  ' 

The  famous  palace  of  the  Alhambra  is  so  well  known 
that  I  cannot  leave  this  part  of  our  subject  without  one 
picture  and  one  bit  of  description  of  it  from  the  same 
author,  De  Amicis. 

The  Alhambra  was  built  about  four  centuries  ago,  and 
the  wall  which  inclosed  it  was  four  thousand  feet  long  by 
twenty-two  hundred  feet  wide.  Within  this  there  were 
gardens,  fountains,  kiosks,  and  many  beautiful,  fanciful 
structures,  all  of  which  doubtless  cost  as  much  as  the  more 
necessary  parts  of  the  edifice.  The  roofs  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  palace  were  supported  by  forty-three  hundred 
columns  of  precious  marbles  ;  eleven  hundred  and  seventy- 
two  of  these  were  presented  to  Abd-er-Rahman  (for  he  was 
also  the  founder  of  the  Alhambra)  by  sovereigns  of  other 
countries,  or  else  brought  by  him  from  distant  shores  for 
the  decoration  of  this  splendid,  fairy-like  place.  All  the 
pavements  were  of  beautiful  marbles  ;  the  walls,  too,  were 
of  the  same  material,  with  friezes  arranged  in  splendid 
colors  ;  the  ceilings  were  of  deep  blue  color,  with  figures  in 
gilding  and  interlacing  designs  running  over  all.  In  truth, 
nothing  that  could  be  imagined  or  wealth  buy  to  make  this 
palace  beautiful  was  left  out  ;  and  yet  we  are  told  that  the 
palace  of  Zahra  which  was  destroyed  was  still  finer.  All 
this  leads  one  to  almost  believe  that  the  "  Arabian  Nights" 
are  no  fanciful  tales,  but  quite  as  true  as  many  more  serious 
sounding  stories. 

The  Court  of  the  Lions  is  called  "  the  gem  of  Arabian 
art  in  Spain,"  and  of  this  our  author  says :  "  It  is  a  forest 
of  columns,  a  mingling  of  arches  and  embroideries,  an  in- 


130  ARCHITECTURE. 

definable  elegance,  an  indescribable  delicacy,  a  prodigious 
richness,  a  something  light,  transparent,  and  undulating 
like  a  great  pavilion  of  lace  ;  with  almost  the  appearance  of 
a  building  which  must  dissolve  at  a  breath  ;  a  variety  of 
lights,  views,  mysterious  darkness,  a  confusion,  a  capricious 
disorder  of  little  things,  the  majesty  of  a  palace,  the  gayety 
of  a  kiosk,  an  amorous  grace,  an  extravagance,  a  delirium, 
the  fancy  of  an  imaginative  child,  the  dream  of  an  angel,  a 
madness,  a  nameless  something — such  is  the  first  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  Court  of  the  Lions  !"  (Fig.  101.) 

This  court  is  not  large  ;  the  ceiling  is  high,  and  a  light 
portico  runs  round  it  upheld  by  white  marble  columns  in 
clusters  of  two,  three,  or  more,  so  arranged  as  to  resemble 
trees  coming  up  from  the  ground.  Above  the  columns  the 
designs  almost  resemble  curtains,  and  there  are  little  grace- 
ful suggestions  like  ribbons  and  waving  flowers.  "  From 
the  middle  of  the  shortest  sides  advance  two  groups  of 
columns,  which  form  two  species  of  square  temples  of  nine 
arches  each  (see  cut)  surmounted  by  as  many  colored 
cupolas.  The  walls  of  these  little  temples  and  the  exterior 
of  the  portico  are  a  real  lace-work  of  stucco,  embroideries, 
and  hems,  cut  and  pierced  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and 
as  transparent  as  net-work,  changing  in  design  at  every 
step.  Sometimes  they  end  in  points,  in  crimps,  in  festoons, 
sometimes  in  ribbons  waving  round  the  arches,  in  kinds  of 
stalactites,  fringes,  trinkets,  and  bows  which  seem  to  move 
and  mingle  with  each  other  at  the  slightest  breath  of  air. 
Large  Arabic  inscriptions  run  along  the  four  walls,  over  the 
arches,  around  the  capitals,  and  on  the  walls  of  the  little 
temples.  In  the  centre  of  the  court  rises  a  great  marble 
basin,  upheld  by  twelve  lions  (see  cut),  and  surrounded  by 
a  little  paved  canal.  ...  At  every  step  one  takes  in  the 
court  that  forest  of  columns  seems  to  move  and  change 
place,  to  form  again  in  another  way  ;  behind  one  column, 
which  seems  alone,  two,  three,  or  a  row  will  spring  out  ; 


132  ARCHITECTURE. 

others  separate,  unite,  and  separate  again.  .  .  .  We  re- 
mained for  more  than  an  hour  in  the  court,  and  it  passed 
like  a  flash  ;  I,  too,  did  what  almost  all  people  do,  be  they 
Spanish  or  strangers,  men  or  women,  poets  or  not.  I  ran 
my  hand  along  the  walls,  touched  all  the  little  columns, 
and  passed  my  two  hands  around  them,  one  by  one,  as 
around  the  waist  of  a  child  ;  I  hid  among  them,  counted 
them,  looked  at  them  on  a  hundred  sides,  crossed  the  court 
in  a  hundred  ways,  tried  if  it  were  true  that  in  saying  a 
word,  sotto  voce,  into  the  mouth  of  one  lion,  one  could  hear 
it  distinctly  from  the  mouths  of  all  the  others  ;  I  looked  on 
the  marbles  for  the  spots  of  blood  of  poetic  legends,  and 
wearied  both  brain  and  eye  over  the  arabesques.  ...  In 
all  my  life  I  have  never  thought,  nor  said,  nor  shall  I  say, 
so  many  foolish,  stupid,  pretty,  senseless  things  as  I  said  and 
thought  in  that  hour." 

The  study  of  Saracenic  architecture  in  Turkey,  Persia^ 
and  India  is  very  interesting,  but  our  space  warns  us  that 
we  must  hasten  to  leave  this  dreamy,  fairy-like  part  of  our 
subject  and  come  down  to  later  times  and  more  realistic 
matters. 


CHAPTER   III. 

MODERN   ARCHITECTURE. 
1400  A.D.    TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME. 

ALL  Architecture  since  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  is 
called  Modern  Architecture  ;  this  term,  therefore, 
embraces  all  edifices  erected  during  nearly  four  centuries. 

When  I  first  spoke  of  Architecture  I  said  that  it  was  a 
constructive  art,  and  not  imitative  like  Painting  and  Sculpt- 
ure. In  its  earlier  history  this  was  true,  but  the  time  came 
when  it  also  became  an  imitative  art  and  had  no  true  or 
original  style.  The  Gothic  order  was  the  last  distinct  order 
which  arose,  and  since  its  decline,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Renaissance,  all  architecture  has  been  an  imitation  because 
it  is  a  reproduction  of  what  existed  before  ;  at  times  some 
one  of  the  older  orders  has  been  in  favor  and  closely  imi- 
tated, and  again,  parts  of  several  orders  are  combined  in 
one  edifice.  Since  the  time  of  the  Reformation  it  has  been 
true,  almost  without  exception,  that  every  building  of  any 
importance  has  been  copied  from  something  belonging  to  a 
country  and  a  people  foreign  to  the  land  in  which  it  was 
erected. 

When  the  revival  of  Classic  Literature  began,  Rome  was 
the  first  to  feel  its  influence.  It  was  welcomed  there  with 
open  arms,  just  as  we  might  receive  the  early  history  and 
literature  of  our  country  if  it  had  all  been  lost  and  was 
found  again  ;  for  this  was  precisely  what  it  meant  to  the 


134  ARCHITECTURE. 

Romans,  when,  after  the  Dark  Ages,  the  works  of  Livy, 
Tacitus,  and  Caesar  were  in  their  hands,  and  they  read  of 
the  history,  art,  and  literature  of  their  past.  They  were 
enthusiastic,  and  their  feeling  soon  spread  over  all  Italy. 

France  was  the  next  to  adopt  the  newly-revived  ideas, 
for  that  country  looked  to  Rome  as  the  source  of  true  re- 
ligion, and  a  model  in  all  things.  Spain  was  then  in  an  un- 
settled state,  and  welcomed  the  revival  of  classic  art  as 
heartily  as  it  had  already  embraced  the  Church  of  Rome. 

In  Germany  the  love  of  the  classics  was  enthusiastic,  but 
that  nation  was  more  taken  up  with  literature  and  slower  in 
adopting  the  revival  of  the  arts  than  were  the  more  southern 
peoples,  and  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  are  a 
barren  period  in  the  history  of  German  architecture. 

In  England,  too,  the  Renaissance  made  slow  progress. 
It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Charles  I.  that  any  influence 
Was  felt  in  Great  Britain  from  the  revival  of  classic  taste 
which  was  so  well  established  on  the  Continent. 

As  it  is  true  that  no  new  order  of  Architecture  has  arisen 
since  the  time  of  those  of  which  I  have  already  told  you,  I 
shall  try  to  make  you  understand  something  of  Modern 
Architecture  by  speaking  of  certain  important  edifices  in  one 
country  and  another,  with  no  attempt  at  any  more  detailed 
explanation  of  it. 

ITALY. 

We  cannot  say  that  the  art  of  the  Renaissance  originated 
in  one  city  or  another,  because  the  movement  in  the  revival 
of  art  was  so  general  throughout  Italy  ;  but  Florence  has  a 
strong  claim  to  our  first  consideration  from  the  fact  that 
Filippo  Brunelleschi  was  a  Florentine  and  did  his  greatest 
work  in  his  native  city,  and  on  account  of  it  has  been  called 
"  the  father  of  the  Art  of  the  Renaissance."  He  was  born 
in  1377,  and  from  his  early  boyhood  was  inclined  to  be  an 
architect.  The  cathedral  of  Florence  (Fig.  102),  which  is 


O 

> 

X 


136  ARCHITECTURE. 

also  called  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore,  had  been 
built  long  before,  but  had  never  been  finished  by  a  roof  or 
dome. 

Brunelleschi  was  possessed  with  but  one  desire,  which 
was  to  complete  this  cathedral.  He  went  to  Rome  and 
diligently  studied  the  remains  of  classic  art  which  he  found 
there,  and  especially  the  dome  of  the  Pantheon.  Return- 
ing to  Florence  he  took  measures  to  bring  his  plans  before 
the  superintendents  of  the  cathedral  works  ;  he  was 
ridiculed  and  discouraged  on  every  hand,  but  he  never  gave 
up  his  hopes  nor  lessened  his  study  of  the  ways  and  means 
by  which  the  dome  could  be  built.  Thus  many  weary  years 
passed  by  ;  Brunelleschi  made  drawings  in  secret,  and  from 
these  he  constructed  models  in  order  to  convince  himself  of 
what  he  could  do. 

At  last  those  who  had  authority  in  the  matter  were 
ready  to  act,  and  a  convention  was  called,  before  which  the 
architects  of  different  nations  appeared  and  were  requested 
to  explain  their  theories  of  what  could  be  done  to  cover  the 
cathedral.  Many  artists  were  assembled  and  various  plans 
were  shown,  but  after  all  had  been  examined  the  work  was 
given  to  Brunelleschi,  and  he  was  happy  in  finding  that  the 
years  he  had  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  dome  had  not 
been  spent  in  vain. 

It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Brunelleschi  refused  to 
show  his  models,  and  when  the  other  architects  blamed  him 
for  this  he  asked  that  some  eggs  should  be  brought,  and 
proposed  that  he  who  could  make  an  egg  stand  upright  on 
a  smooth  piece  of  marble  should  be  the  builder  of  the 
dome.  The  others  tried  to  do  this  and  failed  ;  at  last 
Brunelleschi  brought  his  egg  down  on  the  marble  with  a 
sharp  tap  and  left  it  standing  erect.  Then  all  exclaimed, 
"  Oh,  we  could  have  done  that  if  we  had  known  that  was 
the  way,"  to  which  Brunelleschi  replied,  "  So  you  could 
have  built  a  dome  if  I  had  shown  you  my  models." 


138  ARCHITECTURE. 

This  story  is  often  told  of  Columbus,  but  as  Brunelleschi 
was  much  older  than  Columbus,  and  the  fact  is  related  by 
Florentine  writers  of  his  time,  it  is  probable  that  Columbus 
had  heard  of  it  from  the  geographer  Toscanelli,  who  was  a 
great  admirer  of  Brunelleschi  and  a  friend  of  Columbus 
also.  In  building  the  dome,  Brunelleschi  encountered  great 
difficulties,  but  he  lived  to  be  assured  of  his  success,  for  at 
his  death,  in  1444,  it  lacked  but  little  of  completion,  and  all 
the  parts  essential  to  its  perfection  and  durability  were 
finished. 

This  is  the  largest  dome  in  the  world,  for  though  the 
cross  on  the  top  of  St.  Peter's  is  farther  from  the  ground 
than  that  of  Florence,  the  dome  itself  above  the  church  is 
not  as  large  as  the  dome  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore. 

This  work  made  Brunelleschi's  greatest  fame,  but  he 
was  the  architect  of  many  other  fine  churches  and  of  secular 
buildings  also  ;  among  the  last  the  Pitti  Palace,  in  which  is 
the  famous  Pitti  Gallery,  is  one  of  the  most  important. 
When  you  go  to  Florence  you  will  see  a  statue  of  Filippo 
Brunelleschi,  which  is  very  interesting,  on  account  of  the 
way  in  which  it  is  represented  and  the  position  in  which  it 
is  placed.  It  is  on  one  side  of  the  Piazza  of  the  cathedral  ; 
he  is  calmly  sitting  there  with  a  plan  of  the  church  spread 
before  him  on  his  lap,  while  he  lifts  his  head  to  look  at  the 
great  dome  as  it  stands  out  against  the  sky,  the  realization 
of  all  his  thought  and  labor  during  so  many  years. 

The  church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  which  is  the  largest 
and  most  magnificent  of  all  Christian  temples,  was  begun 
about  1450,  and  was  not  brought  into  its  present  form  until 
about  1661,  or  more  than  two  centuries  later  (Fig.  103). 

The  history  of  its  building  is  largely  a  story  of  conten- 
tions and  troubles  between  popes,  architects,  and  artists  of 
different  kinds.  As  it  now  stands  it  is  as  much  the  work 
of  Michael  Angelo  as  of  any  one  man,  but  several  other 
architects  left  their  imprint  upon  it,  both  before  and  after 


FIG.  104. — SECTION  OF  ST.  PETER'S. 


140  ARCHITECTURE. 

his  time  ;  and  all  who  aided  in  its  construction  were  emi- 
nent men,  in  their  way.  Michael  Angelo  was  in  his  seventy- 
second  year  when  he  took  up  the  task  of  completing  St. 
Peter's.  Bramante,  Raphael,  and  Peruzzi  had  preceded 
him  as  architects  of  the  church  ;  Michael  Angelo  designed 
the  dome,  and  when  he  was  ninety  it  was  nearly  finished  ; 
the  models  for  its  completion  which  he  made  were  not 
followed  after  his  death  ;  his  plan  would  have  made  the 
church  more  harmonious  with  the  dome,  in  size,  than  it 
now  is.  Money  was  sent  in  large  sums,  from  all  Europe, 
to  carry  on  this  work  ;  the  finest  materials  were  used  in 
building  it,  and  the  most  gifted  artists  were  employed  in  its 
decoration  ;  it  is  now  the  vast  home  of  multitudes  of  treas- 
ures. "  I  have  hung  the  Pantheon  in  the  air  !"  Michael 
Angelo  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  while  looking  at  the 
splendid  dome  of  St.  Peter's  ;  and  no  dome  in  the  world 
has  a  more  imposing  effect,  although  its  harmony  with  the 
rest  of  the  building  is  injured  by  the  change  of  the  plan 
from  that  of  a  Greek  cross  which  was  made  after  his  death.* 
In  spite  of  all  this  the  critics  of  architecture  are  never 
weary  of  pointing  out  the  defects  of  St.  Peter's  ;  but  to 
those  who  cannot  apply  to  it  the  test  of  strictly  scientific 
rules,  its  interior  is  sublime  in  its  effect,  and  has  few  rivals 
— perhaps  but  one — in  the  world,  and  that  is  the  great 
Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak,  of  which  we  spoke  when  writing 
of  Egyptian  architecture.  But  even  here  the  difference  is 
almost  too  great  to  admit  of  comparison  ;  the  spirit  of  the 
two  is  so  unlike — St.  Peter's  is  complete  and  Karnak  is  a 
ruin — so,  after  all,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  interior  of 
St.  Peter's  is  superior  to  all  other  edifices  of  which  we 
know  (Fig.  104). 

*  The  interior  diameter  of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  is  one  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  feet  ;  that  of  St.  Sophia,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet,  and  that  of 
Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore,  at  Florence,  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  feet,  six 
inches. 


VENICE. 


141 


FIG.  105. — EAST  ELEVATION  OF  LIBRARY  OF  ST.  MARK.     Venice 

From  the  "time  of  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance, 
about  1420,  to  about  1630,  the  architecture  of  Venice  was 
going  through  a  change,  and  finally  reached  such  perfection 
that  during  the  next  half  century  the  most  magnificent 
style  of  architecture  prevailed  which  has  ever  been  known 
there.  We  mean  to  say  that  the  whole  effect  was  the 
grandest,  for,  while  it  is  true  that  the  edifices  of  that  time 
are  stately  and  striking  in  their  appearance,  it  is  equally 
true  that  their  form  and  ornamentation  are  not  as  much  in 
keeping  with  their  use  as  they  had  been  in  older  edifices. 


142  ARCHITECTURE. 

Sansovino,  who  lived  from  1479  to  157O>  was  an  inipor- 
tant  architect  and  had  great  influence  upon  modern  Venetian 
architecture.  His  masterpiece  was  the  Library  of  St. 
Mark,  of  which  the  preceding  cut  gives  one  end  (Fig.  105). 
It  is  a  very  beautiful  structure,  and  is  made  more  interest- 
ing from  the  fact  that  it  stands  directly  opposite  to  the 
Doge's  Palace,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  the  interest  which 
centres  about  the  Piazza  of  St.  Mark. 

The  Ducal  Palace  at  Venice  is  called  by  John  Ruskin, 
the  great  English  critic,  "  the  central  edifice  of  the  world." 
It  is  divided  into  three  stories,  of  which  the  uppermost 
occupies  rather  more  than  half  the  height  of  the  building. 
The  two  lower  stories  are  arcades  of  low,  pointed  arches, 
supported  on  pillars,  the  one  beneath  being  bolder  and 
heavier  in  character  than  the  second.  The  capitals  of  the 
columns  are  greatly  varied,  no  two  in  the  upper  arcade 
being  exactly  alike.  Above  the  arches  of  the  middle  story 
was  a  row  of  open-work  spaces,  of  the  form  called  quatre- 
foil  ;  while  the  third  story  is  faced  with  alternating  blocks 
of  rose-colored  and  white  marble,  and  is  pierced  with  a  few 
large  pointed  windows.  The  whole  front,  or  fagade,  is 
crowned  by  an  open  parapet  made  up  of  blocks  of  stone 
carved  into  lily-like  forms  alternating  with  lance-shaped 
leaves.  The  whole  effect  is  one  of  great  richness  and 
beauty,  especially  since  time  has  mellowed  its  color, 
and  softened  without  destroying  the  whiteness  of  its 
marbles  (Fig.  106). 

During  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  there  were  churches, 
palaces,  museums,  hospitals,  and  other  large  buildings 
erected  in  all  the  important  cities  of  Italy.  There  are  but 
few  of  these  which  have  such  special  features  as  entitle 
them  to  be  selected  for  description  here.  The  reason  for 
this  has  been  given  already — viz.  :  there  was  nothing  new 
in  them  ;  they  were  all  repetitions  of  what  has  been  de- 
scribed in  one  form  or  another.  Perhaps  the  next  cut  gives 


144 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  107. — GREAT  COURT  OF  THE  HOSPITAL  OF  MILAN. 

as  good  an  example  of  secular  architecture  in  this  age  as 
any  that  could  be  selected  (Fig.  107). 

Indeed,  it  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  buildings  of  its 
class  in  any  age.  It  was  commenced  by  Francesco  Sforza 
and  his  wife,  Bianca,  in  1456.  Thty  died  long  before  its 
completion,  and  one  part  and  another  have  been  changed 
from  time  to  time,  but  its  great  court,  which  was  designed 
by  Bramante,  still  remains,  the  finest  thing  of  its  kind  in  all 
Italy. 

I  shall  now  leave  Italy  with  saying  that  the  early  days 
of  the  Renaissance  were  the  best  days  of  Italian  Architect- 
ure, and,  indeed,  of  Italian  Art.  The  period  made  sacred 
by  the  genius  and  works  of  Michael  Angelo,  Bramante, 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE   IN   SPAIN.  145 

Sangallo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Raphael  was  a  golden 
era,  and  still  sheds  its  lustre  over  the  land  of  their  nativity. 
These  artists  followed  the  highest  ideal  of  Art,  and  their  errors 
were  superior  to  the  so-called  successes  of  less  gifted  men. 

The  Italian  Art  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  individual 
and  grand  ;  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  became  formal  and 
elegant  ;  in  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  bizarre,  over- 
ornamented,  and  uncertain  in  its  aim  and  execution  ;  since 
then  it  has  been  comparatively  unimportant,  and  its  archi- 
tecture scarcely  merits  censure,  and  certainly  cannot  be 
praised. 

SPAIN. 

From  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Granada,  in  1492  to  1558, 
Spain  was  the  leading  nation  of  Europe.  The  whole 
country  had  been  united  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and 
their  reign  was  a  glorious  period  for  their  country.  The 
importance  of  the  nation  was  increased  by  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World,  and  so  many  great  men  were  in  her  coun- 
cils that  her  eminence  was  sure,  and  almost  undisputed. 
Thus  it  followed  that  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Architecture  of  Spain  gave  expression  to  the 
spirit  by  which  the  nation  was  then  animated. 

This  did  not  long  continue,  however,  for  the  iron,  prac- 
tical rule  of  Philip  II.  crushed  out  enthusiasm  and  was  fatal 
to  artistic  inspiration.  This  sovereign  desired  only  to  ex- 
tend his  kingdom  ;  the  priests,  who  acquired  almost  limit- 
less power  under  his  reign,  aimed  only  to  strengthen  their 
authority,  while  the  people  were  wildly  pursuing  riches  in 
the  New  World  which  opened  up  to  them  a  vast  and  attrac- 
tive field.  Thus  no  place  or  time  was  left  to  the  cultivation 
of  Art,  and  the  only  noteworthy  period  of  Spanish  Archi- 
tecture since  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  was  the  sixty 
years  which  we  have  mentioned. 


146  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Modern  Architecture  of  Spain  has  been  divided  into 
three  eras,  each  of  which  was  distinguished  by  its  own 
style.  The  first  extends  from  the  beginning  of  the  Renais- 
sance down  to  that  of  the  abdication  of  the  great  Emperor 
Charles  V.  in  1555  ;  the  manner  of  this  period  is  called 
Platerisco,  or  the  silversmith's  style,  on  account  of  the  vast 
amount  of  fine,  filigree  ornament  which  was  used.  The 
second  period  is  from  the  above  date  to  about  1650,  and  its 
art  is  called  the  Graeco-Roman  style  because  it  is  an  attempt 
to  revive  the  Classic  Art  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
The  third  period  comes  from  1650  to  about  a  century  later, 
and  the  Spaniards  call  its  manner  the  Churrigueresque, 
which  difficult  name  they  take  from  that  of  Josef  de  Chur- 
riguera,  the  architect  who  invented  this  style.  Since  1750 
we  may  almost  say  that  no  such  thing  as  Spanish  Architect- 
ure has  existed. 

The  cathedrals  of  Granada,  Jaen,  and  Valladolid,  and 
the  churches  of  Malaga  and  Segovia,  with  many  other 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  are  among  the  chief  monuments  of 
Spanish  Renaissance  Architecture,  but  we  shall  pass  on  to 
a  little  later  period  and  speak  of  but  one  great  achievement, 
the  famous  Escurial,  which  is  of  much  historic  interest. 

This  combination  of  basilica,  palace,  monastery,  and 
college  was  begun  in  1563  by  Philip  II.,  in  accordance  with 
a  vow  which  he  made  to  St.  Lawrence  at  the  battle  of  St. 
Quentin.  This  battle  was  fought  in  1557  under  the  walls 
of  the  French  town  of  St.  Quentin,  by  the  French  and  the 
Spaniards,  and  the  latter  were  completely  victorious. 

This  cut  gives  an  idea  of  how  grand  and  impressive  this 
collection  of  walls,  towers,  courts,  and  edifices  must  be,  all 
crowned  with  the  dome  of  the  basilica.  It  is  almost  like  a 
city  by  itself,  and  all  who  visit  it  agree  that  it  is  a  gloomy 
and  depressing  place  in  spite  of  its  grandeur  (Fig.  108). 

The  front  has  three  imposing  entrances,  with  towers  at 
the  corner  angles.  Within  the  inclosure  are  a  college,. 


THE   ESCURIAL. 


FIG.   108. — THE  ESCURIAL.     Near  Madrid. 


monastery,  palace  with  state  apartments,  the  church, 
numerous  courts,  gardens,  and  fountains.  The  front  is 
injured  by  the  great  number  of  small  windows,  which  divide 
it  into  such  numberless  sections  as  to  become  very  tiresome 
to  the  eye,  while  they  take  away  the  noble  elegance  of 
larger  spaces  and  the  air  of  repose  which  such  spaces  give. 
The  angle  towers  are  not  as  rich  in  effect  as  they  should  be, 
and  the  side  walls  have  been  compared  to  those  of  a  Man- 
chester cotton-mill  ;  thus  the  exterior,  which  is  effective 
from  its  size  and  general  air,  has  not  the  beauty  of  detail 
which  satisfies  a  close  observer 


148  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  effect  of  the  interior,  as  one  goes  in  by  the  central 
entrance,  is  all  that  can  be  desired.  The  court  leads  directly 
to  the  square  before  the  church  ;  as  one  passes  to  it  he  has 
the  college  on  one  side,  the  monastery  on  the  other,  farther 
on  the  palace,  with  the  whole  culminating  in  the  grand 
state  apartments  and  the  basilica.  The  various  courts  are 
striking  in  their  arrangement,  and  the  church  with  its  dome 
and  towers  gives  a  supreme  glory  to  the  whole.  Gardens, 
fountains,  and  many  other  fine  objects  add  their  effect  to 
the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  whole  ;  but  all  are  insignifi- 
cant beside  the  basilica,  which  merits  a  place  in  the  fore- 
most rank  of  the  churches  of  the  Renaissance.  Indeed,  the 
Escurial  is  a  marvellous  place,  and  is  often  called  "  the 
eighth  wonder  of  the  world."  The  richest  marbles,  splen- 
did pictures,  and  many  magnificent  objects  help  to  make  it 
one  of  the  grandest  works  of  modern  architecture. 

It  is  also  true  that  it  is  one  of  the  gloomiest  places 
visited  by  travellers,  and  I  shall  quote  a  few  lines  from  De 
Amicis  to  show  the  depressing  effect  which  it  has  upon 
those  who  go  there. 

"  The  first  feeling  is  that  of  sadness  ;  the  whole  building 
is  of  dirt-colored  stone,  and  striped  with  white  between  the 
stones  ;  the  roofs  are  covered  with  strips  of  lead.  It  looks 
like  an  edifice  built  of  earth.  The  walls  are  very  high  and 
bare,  and  contain  a  great  number  of  loopholes.  One  would 
call  it  a  prison  rather  than  a  convent.  .  .  .  The  locality, 
the  forms,  the  colors,  everything,  in  fact,  seems  to  have 
been  chosen  by  him  who  founded  the  edifice  with  the  inten- 
tion of  offering  to  the  eyes  of  men  a  sad  and  solemn  spec- 
tacle. Before  entering  you  have  lost  all  your  gayety  ;  you 
no  longer  smile,  but  think.  You  stop  at  the  doors  of  the 
Escurial  with  a  sort  of  trepidation,  as  at  the  gates  of  a 
deserted  city  ;  it  seems  to  you  that,  if  the  terrors  of  the 
Inquisition  reigned  in  some  corner  of  the  world,  they  ought 
to  reign  among  those  walls.  You  would  say  that  therein 


THE   ESCURIAL.  149 

one  might  still  see  the  last  traces  of  it  and  hear  its  last 
echo.  .  .  .  The  royal  palace  is  superb,  and  it  is  better  to- 
see  it  before  entering  the  convent  and  church,  in  order  not 
to  confuse  the  separate  impressions  produced  by  each. 
This  palace  occupies  the  northeast  corner  of  the  edifice. 
Several  rooms  are  full  of  pictures,  others  are  covered  from 
floor  to  ceiling  with  tapestries,  representing  bull-fights, 
public  balls,  games,  fetes,  and  Spanish  costumes,  designed 
by  Goya  ;  others  are  regally  furnished  and  adorned  ;  the 
floor,  the  doors,  and  the  windows  are  covered  with  marvel- 
lous inlaid  work  and  stupendous  gilding.  But  among  all 
the  rooms  the  most  noteworthy  is  that  of  Philip  II.  ;  it  is 
rather  a  cell  than  a  room,  is  bare  and  squalid,  with  an  alcove 
which  answers  to  the  royal  oratory  of  the  church,  so  that, 
from  the  bed,  by  keeping  the  doors  open,  one  can  see  the 
priest  who  is  saying  mass.  Philip  II.  slept  in  that  cell,  had 
his  last  illness  there,  and  there  he  died.  One  still  sees 
some  chairs  used  by  him,  two  little  stools  upon  which  he 
rested  the  leg  tormented  with  gout,  and  a  writing-desk. 
The  walls  are  white,  the  ceiling  flat  and  without  any  orna- 
ment, and  the  floor  of  brick.  .  .  In  the  court-yard  of  the 
kings  you  can  form  a  first  idea  of  the  immense  frame-work 
of  the  edifice.  The  court  is  inclosed  by  walls  ;  on  the  side 
opposite  the  doors  is  the  facade  of  the  church.  On  a 
spacious  flight  of  steps  there  are  six  enormous  Doric  col- 
umns, each  of  which  upholds  a  large  pedestal,  and  every 
pedestal  a  statue.  There  are  six  colossal  statues,  by  Bat- 
tiste  Monegro,  representing  Jehoshaphat,  Ezekiel,  David, 
Solomon,  Joshua,  and  Manasseh.  The  court  yard  is  paved, 
scattered  with  bunches  of  damp  turf.  The  walls  look  like 
rocks  cut  in  points  ;  everything  is  rigid,  massive,  and 
heavy,  and  presents  the  fantastic  appearance  of  a  Titanic 
edifice,  hewn  out  of  solid  stone,  and  ready  to  defy  the 
shocks  of  earth  and  the  lightnings  of  heaven.  There  one 
begins  to  understand  what  the  Escurial  really  is. 


150  ARCHITECTURE. 

"  One  ascends  the  steps  and  enters  the  church.  The 
interior  is  sad  and  bare.  .  .  .  Beside  the  high  altar,  sculpt- 
ured and  gilded  in  the  Spanish  style,  in  the  inter-columns 
of  the  two  royal  oratories,  one  sees  two  groups  of  bronze 
statues  kneeling,  with  their  hands  clasped  toward  the  altar. 
On  the  right  Charles  V.  and  the  Empress  Isabella,  and 
several  princesses  ;  on  the  left,  Philip  II.  with  his  wives. 
...  In  a  corner,  near  a  secret  door,  is  the  chair  which 
Philip  II.  occupied.  He  received  through  that  door  letters 
and  important  messages,  without  being  seen  by  the  priests 
who  were  chanting  in  the  choir.  This  church,  which,  in 
comparison  with  the  entire  building,  seems  very  small,  is 
nevertheless  one  of  the  largest  in  Spain,  and  although  it 
appears  so  free  from  ornamentation,  contains  immense 
treasures  of  marble,  gold,  relics,  and  pictures,  which  the 
darkness  in  part  conceals,  and  from  which  the  sad  appear- 
ance of  the  edifice  distracts  one's  attention.  .  .  .  But  every 
feeling  sinks  into  that  of  sadness.  The  color  of  the  stone, 
the  gloomy  light,  and  the  profound  silence  which  surrounds 
you,  recall  your  mind  incessantly  to  the  vastitude,  unknown 
recesses,  and  solitude  of  the  building,  and  leave  no  room 
for  the  pleasure  of  admiration.  The  aspect  of  the  church 
awakens  in  you  an  inexplicable  feeling  of  inquietude.  You 
would  divine,  were  you  not  otherwise  aware  of  it,  that 
those  walls  are  surrounded,  for  a  great  distance,  by  nothing 
but  granite,  darkness,  and  silence  ;  without  seeing  the 
enormous  edifice,  you  feel  it  ;  you  feel  that  you  are  in  the 
midst  of  an  uninhabited  city  ;  you  would  fain  quicken  your 
pace  in  order  to  see  it  rapidly,  to  free  yourself  from  the 
weight  of  that  mystery,  and  to  seek,  if  they  exist  anywhere, 
bright  light,  noise,  and  life.  .  .  .  One  goes  to  the  convent, 
and  here  human  imagination  loses  itself  ;  .  .  .  you  pass 
through  a  long  subterranean  corridor,  so  narrow  that  you 
can  touch  the  walls  with  your  elbows,  low  enough  almost  to 
hit  the  ceiling  with  your  head,  and  as  damp  as  a  submarine 


THE   ESCURIAL.  151 

grotto  ;  you  reach  the  end,  turn,  and  you  are  in  another 
corridor.  You  go  on,  come  to  doors,  look,  and  other  cor- 
ridors stretch  away  before  you  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 
At  the  end  of  some  you  see  a  ray  of  light,  at  the  end  of 
others  an  open  door,  through  which  you  catch  a  glimpse  of 
a  suite  of  rooms.  .  .  .  You  look  through  a  door  and  start 
back  alarmed  ;  at  the  end  of  that  long  corridor,  into  which 
you  have  glanced,  you  have  seen  a  man  as  motionless  as  a 
spectre,  who  was  looking  at  you.  You  proceed,  and 
emerge  on  a  narrow  court,  inclosed  by  high  walls,  which  is 
gloomy,  overgrown  with  weeds,  and  illumined  by  a  faint 
light  which  seems  to  fall  from  an  unknown  sun,  like  the 
court  of  the  witches  described  to  us  when  we  were  children. 
.  .  .  You  pass  through  other  corridors,  staircases,  suites  of 
empty  rooms,  and  narrow  courts,  and  everywhere  there  is 
granite,  a  pale  light,  and  the  silence  of  a  tomb.  For  a 
short  time  you  think  you  would  be  able  to  retrace  your 
steps  ;  then  your  memory  becomes  confused,  and  you 
remember  nothing  more  ;  you  seem  to  have  walked  ten 
miles,  to  have  been  in  that  labyrinth  for  a  month,  and  not 
to  be  able  to  get  out  of  it.  You  come  to  a  court  and  say, 
'  I  have  seen  it  already  !  '  but  you  are  mistaken  ;  it  is 
another.  .  .  .  You  seem  to  be  dreaming  ;  catch  glimpses 
of  long  frescoed  walls  ornamented  with  pictures,  crucifixes, 
and  inscriptions  ;  you  see  and  forget  ;  and  ask  yourself, 
4  Where  am  I  ?  '  .  .  .  On  you  go  from  corridor  to  corridor, 
court  to  court  ;  you  look  ahead  with  suspicion  ;  almost 
expect  to  see  suddenly,  at  the  turning  of  a  corner,  a  row  of 
skeleton  monks,  with  their  hoods  drawn  over  their  eyes  and 
their  arms  folded  ;  you  think  of  Philip  II.,  and  seem  to 
hear  his  retreating  step  through  dark  hallways  ;  you  re- 
member all  that  you  have  read  of  him,  of  his  treasures,  the 
Inquisition,  and  all  becomes  clear  to  your  mind's  eye  ;  you 
understand  everything  for  the  first  time  ;  the  Escurial  is 
Philip  II.,  he  is  still  there,  alive  and  frightful,  and  with 


152  ARCHITECTURE. 

him  the  image  of  his  terrible  God.  .  .  .  The  Escurial  sur- 
rounds, holds,  and  overwhelms  you  ;  the  cold  of  its  stones 
penetrates  to  your  marrow  ;  the  sadness  of  its  sepulchral 
labyrinths  invades  your  soul  ;  if  you  are  with  a  friend  you 
say,  '  Let  us  leave  ;  '  if  you  were  alone  you  would  take  to 
flight.  At  last  you  mount  a  staircase,  enter  a  room,  go  to 
the  window,  and  salute  with  a  burst  of  gratitude  the  moun- 
tains, sun,  freedom,  and  the  great  and  beneficent  God  who 
loves  and  pardons.  What  a  long  breath  one  draws  at  that 
window  ! 

"  An  illustrious  traveller  said  that  after  having  passed  a 
day  in  the  convent  of  the  Escurial,  one  ought  to  feel  happy 
throughout  one's  life,  in  simply  thinking  that  one  might 
still  be  among  those  walls,  but  is  no  longer  there.  This  is 
almost  true.  Even  at  the  present  day,  after  so  great  a  lapse 
of  time,  on  rainy  days,  when  I  am  sad,  I  think  of  the 
Escurial,  then  look  at  the  walls  of  my  room,  and  rejoice  !" 

During  the  sixteenth  century  there  were  many  palaces 
erected  in  Spain,  but  nothing  can  be  added  to  the  impres- 
sions you  will  get  from  the  descriptions  we  have  quoted  of 
the  cheerful,  gay  Alhambra,  and  the  gloomy,  sad  Escurial. 

The  domestic  architecture  of  Spain  is  unattractive. 
There  are  no  fine  chdteaux,  as  in  France,  or  elegant  parks, 
as  in  England.  Ford  compares  the  front  of  the  residence 
of  the  Duke  of  Medina  to  "  ten  Baker-street  houses  put 
together,"  and  this  is  true  of  many  so-called  palaces.  This 
state  of  modern  Spanish  architecture  is  fully  accounted  for 
by  the  following  quotation  from  Fergusson,  the  learned 
writer  on  architecture  : 

"  On  the  whole,  perhaps,  we  should  not  be  far  wrong  in 
assuming  that  the  Spaniards  are  among  the  least  artistic 
people  in  Europe.  Great  things  have  been  done  in  their 
country  by  foreigners,  and  they  themselves  have  done 
creditable  things  in  periods  of  great  excitement,  and  under 
the  pressure  of  foreign  example  ;  but  in  themselves  they 


FRANCE.  153 

• 

seem  to  have  no  innate  love  of  Art,  no  real  appreciation  for 
its  beauties,  and,  when  left  to  themselves,  they  care  little 
for  the  expression  of  beauty  in  any  of  the  forms  in  which 
Art  has  learned  to  embody  itself.  In  Painting  they  have 
done  some  things  that  are  worthy  of  praise  ;  in  Sculpture 
they  have  done  very  little  ;  and  in  Architectural  Art  they 
certainly  have  not  achieved  success.  Notwithstanding  that 
they  have  a  climate  inviting  to  architectural  display  in  every 
form  ;  though  they  have  the  best  of  materials  in  infinite 
abundance  ;  though  they  had  wealth  and  learning,  and  were 
stimulated  by  the  example  of  what  had  been  done  in  their 
own  country,  and  was  doing  by  other  nations — in  spite  of 
all  this,  they  have  fallen  far  short  of  what  was  effected 
either  in  Italy  or  France,  and  now  seem  to  be  utterly  in- 
capable of  appreciating  the  excellencies  of  Architectural 
Art,  or  of  caring  to  enjoy  them." 

FRANCE. 

After  the  reigns  of  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  the 
French  people  became  somewhat  familiar  with  Italian  Art, 
and  at  length,  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  from  1515  to 
1546,  everything  Italian  was  the  fashion  in  France.  Francis 
invited  such  artists  as  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  Primaticcio,  and  Andrea  del  Sarto  to  come  to 
France  and  aid  him  in  his  works  at  Fontainebleau  and  else- 
where. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Gothic  architecture  which 
had  been  so  much  used  and  improved  in  France  was 
thought  to  be  inferior  in  beauty  to  the  Italian  architecture 
as  it  existed  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  very  soon  the 
latter  style  was  adopted  and  considered  as  the  only  one 
worthy  of  admiration.  But  the  French  architects  had  been 
so  trained  to  the  Gothic  order  that  it  was  not  easy  for  them 
to  change  their  habits  of  design,  and  the  result  was  that 


154  ARCHITECTURE. 

new  edifices  were  largely  of  the  Gothic  form,  but  were 
finished  and  ornamented  like  the  Italian  buildings  ;  by  this 
means  the  effect  of  the  whole,  when  completed,  was  such 
as  is  seen  in  this  picture  of  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at 
Dijon  (Fig.  109).  In  these  days  no  one  approves  of  this 
union  of  Gothic  design  and  Italian  decoration,  but  when 
it  was  the  fashion  it  was  thought  to  be  very  beautiful 
by  French  architects. 

Francis  I.,  who  was  so  anxious  to  introduce  Italian  art 
into  France,  erected  edifices  of  a  very  different  sort  from 
those  which  he  attempted  to  imitate.  In  Italy,  the  prin- 
cipal buildings  of  the  Renaissance  were  churches  or  con- 
vents, or  such  as  were  in  some  way  for  religious  uses. 
Francis  I.  built  palaces  like  that  of  Fontainebleau,  and  splen- 
did chateaux  like  those  of  Chambord,  or  Chenonceaux,  and 
the  Italian  style  of  architecture  could  not  be  readily  adapted 
to  the  lighter  uses  of  the  French  kings.  The  splendid 
massive  Pitti  Palace,  built  after  the  design  of  the  great 
Brunelleschi,  would  scarcely  have  harmonized  with  the  river 
banks  and  the  lovely  undulating  meadows  around  a  country 
villa  or  chateau.  So  it  gradually  happened  that  French 
Architecture  was  more  graceful,  light,  and  elegant  than  the 
architecture  of  the  churches,  monasteries,  and  other  relig- 
ious edifices  of  Italy,  and  at  the  same  time  the  Italian 
feeling  and  influence  can  easily  be  traced  in  the  French 
buildings  of  the  time  of  which  we  speak. 

In  Italy  the  Pope  and  the  Church  governed  in  Art,  and 
considered  it  only  as  a  religious  means  of  glorifying  the 
Church  and  impressing  its  doctrines  upon  the  whole  people. 
In  France  the  sovereigns  held  the  leading  place,  and  in  the 
midst  of  their  ambitions  and  their  gayeties  they  found  lit- 
tle time  to  consider  the  matter  of  church  architecture. 
Though  the  church  of  St.  Eustache  was  erected  at  Paris, 
and  other  churches  were  restored,  it  was  not  until  1629, 
when  Cardinal  Richelieu  ordered  the  buildinsf  of  the  church 


FIG.  iog. — FACADE  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  ST.  MICHAEI 


I56 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  no. — FACADE  OF  THE  DOME  OF  THE  INVALIDES.     Paris 

of  the  Sarbonne,  that  an  example  was  given  of  the  full 
effects  upon  French  church  architecture  of  the  change 
from  the  Gothic,  or  Mediaeval  style,  to  that  of  the  Renais- 
sance, or  the  Classic  style. 

Perhaps  the  church  of  the  Invalides  is  the  most  remark- 
able building  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  France.  It  was 
designed  and  superintended  by  Jules  Hardouin  Mansard,  a 
skilful  architect,  who  was  born  in  1647,  and  died  in  1708. 


THE   INVALIDES,    PARIS. 


157 


FIG.   in. — THE  PANTHEON.      Paris. 


The  erection  of  the  dome  of  the  Invalides  occupied  him 
from  1680  to  1706.  It  is  a  fashion  to  criticise  this  as  well 
as  all  famous  buildings,  but  if  it  is  remembered  that  the 
dome  was  intended  to  be  the  feature  of  the  edifice,  and  that 
it  was  therefore  necessary  to  sacrifice  something  to  it,  in  the 
construction  of  the  whole,  we  must  admit  that  what  its 
admirers  claim  for  it  is  true — namely,  that  it  is  one  of  the 


158  ARCHITECTURE. 

finest  domical  edifices  in  Europe,  and  a  most  satisfactory 
example  of  the  architecture  of  its  class  (Fig.  no). 

Directly  underneath  this  dome  is  the  crypt  in  which  is 
the  sarcophagus  which  contains  the  remains  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  On  the  door  which  leads  to  the  crypt  are  in- 
scribed the  following  words,  taken  from  the  will  of  the  exile 
at  St.  Helena  :  "  I  desire  that  my  ashes  may  rest  on  the 
banks  of  the  Seine,  in  the  midst  of  the  French  people  whom 
I  have  loved  so  well." 

This  tomb  is  said  to  have  cost  nearly  two  millions  of 
dollars,  and  though  it  is  beautiful,  and  in  good  taste  in  its 
details,  yet  one  can  but  regret  that  all  this  expense  should 
not  have  erected  a  splendid  mausoleum,  such  as  would  have 
dignified  the  monumental  art  of  France. 

The  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  or  the  Pantheon,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  is  a  very  important  architectural  work.  It 
was  twenty-six  years  in  building,  and  was  not  completed 
until  after  the  death  of  its  architect,  Soufflot,  which  oc- 
curred in  1781  (Fig.  in). 

It  is  said  that  this  church  was  begun  as  the  fulfilment  of 
a  vow  made  by  King  Louis  XV.  when  he  was  ill,  but  as  the 
French  Revolution  was  in  progress  when  it  was  completed, 
it  was  dedicated  to  the  "  Grands  Hommes"  or  the  great 
men  of  France,  and  not  to  God  or  the  sweet  St.  Genevieve, 
who  was  one  of  the  patron  saints  of  Paris. 

The  dome  of  the  Pantheon  is  elegant  and  chaste,  but 
not  great  in  design  or  effect,  and  the  whole  appearance  of 
the  church  is  weakened  by  the  extreme  width  of  the  spaces 
between  the  front  columns  ;  this  makes  the  entablature 
appear  weak,  and  is  altogether  a  serious  defect.  Another 
striking  fault  is  the  way  in  which  a  second  column  is  placed 
outside  at  each  end  of  the  portico  ;  one  cannot  imagine  a 
reason  for  this,  and  it  is  confusing  and  unmeaning  in  the 
extreme.  The  interior  of  the  Pantheon  is  superior  to  the 
exterior,  and  many  authorities  name  it  as  the  most  satis- 


l6o  ARCHITECTURE. 

factory  of  all  modern,  classical  church  interiors  ;  when  it 
was  built  it  was  believed  to  be  as  perfect  an  imitation  of 
antique  classical  architecture  as  could  be  made,  and  all  the 
world  may  be  grateful  that  it  escaped  the  fate  prepared  for 
it  by  the  Communists.  This  was  averted  by  the  discovery 
and  cutting  of  the  fuse  which  they  had  prepared  for  its 
destruction  on  May  24th,  1871  ;  the  fuse  led  to  the  crypts 
beneath  the  church,  where  these  reckless  men  had  placed 
large  quantities  of  powder. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  French  archi- 
tects believed  it  best  to  reproduce  exactly  ancient  temples 
which  had  been  destroyed.  According  to  this  view  the 
church  of  the  Madeleine  was  begun  in  1804,  after  the 
designs  of  Vignon.  Outwardly  it  is  a  temple  of  the  Corin- 
thian order,  and  is  very  beautiful,  though  its  position 
greatly  lessens  its  effect.  If  it  were  on  a  height,  or  stand- 
ing in  a  large  square  by  itself,  it  would  be  far  more  impos- 
ing (Fig.  112). 

The  church  of  the  Trinity  and  that  of  the  Augustines, 
at  Paris,  are  important  church  edifices  of  the  present  day, 
but  though  much  thought  and  time  have  been  lavished  on 
them,  they  are  not  as  attractive  as  we  could  wish  the  works 
of  our  own  time  to  be  ;  and  they  seem  almost  unworthy  of 
attention  when  we  remember  that  in  the  same  city  there  are 
so  many  examples  of  architecture  that  have  far  more  artistic 
beauty,  as  well  as  the  additional  charms  of  age  and  the 
interest  of  historical  associations. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  sort  of  building  in  which 
Francis  I.  delighted.  Of  all  his  undertakings  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  Louvre  was  the  most  successful.  Its  whole  de- 
sign was  fine  and  the  ornaments  beautiful  ;  many  of  these 
decorations  were  made  after  the  drawings  of  Jean  Goujon, 
who  was  an  eminent  master  in  such  sculptures.  The  court 
of  the  Louvre  has  never  been  excelled  in  any  country  of 
Europe  ;  it  is  a  wonderful  work  for  the  time  in  which  it 


THE  LOUVRE,  PARIS. 


161 


FIG.  113. — PAVILION  DE  L'HORLOGE  AND  PART  OF  THE  COURT  OF  THE 

LOUVRE. 

was  built,   and  satisfies  the  taste  of  the  most  critical  ob 
servers  (Fig.  113). 

We  cannot  give  space  to  descriptions  of  the  chateaux 
built  by  Francis  I.,  but  this  picture  of  that  of  Chambord 
affords  a  good  example  of  what  these  buildings  were 
(Fig.  114). 

From  the  time  of  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  (1560)  to  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  the  style  of  architecture 
which  was  used  in  France  was  called  the  "  style  of  Henry 
IV.  ;"  this  last-named  king  ruled  before  Louis  XIII.,  and 
during  his  time  architecture  sank  to  a  very  low  plane — there 
was  nothing  in  it  to  admire  or  imitate.  Under  Louis  XIII. 


l62  ARCHITECTURE. 

it  began  to  improve,  and  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
is  called  the  "Grand  Monarquc"  all  the  arts  made  great 
progress  and  received  much  patronage  from  the  king,  and 
all  the  people  of  the  court,  for  whom  the  king  was  a  model. 
Louis  XIV.  began  a  revival  of  Roman  classical  architect- 
ure, and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  believed  that  he 
equalled,  or  perhaps  excelled,  Julius  Caesar  and  all  other 
Roman  emperors  as  a  patron  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

But  we  know  that  this  great  monarch  was  deceived  by 
his  self-love  and  by  the  flatteries  of  those  who  surrounded 
him  and  wished  to  obtain  favors  from  him.  His  architect- 
ural works  had  so  many  faults  that  it  is  very  tiresome  to 
read  what  is  written  about  them,  and  in  any  case  it  is 
pleasanter  to  speak  of  virtues  than  of  faults.  The  works 
of  Louis  XIV.  were  certainly  herculean,  and  when  we 
think  of  the  building  of  the  palace  of  Versailles,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Louvre,  and  the  numberless  hotels,  chateaux, 
and  palaces  which  belong  to  his  reign,  we  feel  sure  that  if 
only  the  vastness  of  the  architectural  works  of  his  time  is 
considered,  he  well  merits  the  title  of  the  Great  Monarch. 
But  these  important  edifices  require  more  time  and  space  if 
spoken  of  in  detail  than  we  can  give,  and  I  pass  to  some 
consideration  of  the  works  of  our  own  time. 

The  architecture  of  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III.  requires 
the  space  of  a  volume,  at  least,  were  it  to  be  clearly  de- 
scribed, for  during  that  reign  there  was  scarcely  a  city  of 
France  that  did  not  add  some  important  building  to  its 
public  edifices.  First,  the  city  of  Paris  was  remodelled  and 
rebuilt  to  a  marvellous  extent,  and  as  in  other  matters  Paris 
is  the  leader,  so  its  example  was  followed  in  architecture. 
The  new  Bourse  in  Lyons,  the  Custom  House  at  Rouen, 
and  the  Exchange  at  Marseilles  are  good  specimens  of  what 
was  done  in  this  way  outside  the  great  metropolis. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  a  little  later, 
French  domestic  architecture  was  vastly  improved,  and 


!? 
P 

M 
»H 

•F 

n 


o 

s 


164  ARCHITECTURE. 

since  then  much  more  attention  has  been  given  by  French- 
men to  the  houses  in  which  they  live.  The  appearance  of 
the  new  Boulevards  and  streets  of  Paris  is  picturesque,  while 
the  houses  are  rich  and  elegant.  Many  portions  of  this 
city  are  more  beautiful  than  any  other  city  of  Europe  ;  and 
yet  it  is  true  that  the  architecture  of  forty  years  or  so  ago 
was  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  the  present  time. 


FIG.  115. — PORTE  ST.  DENIS.     Paris. 

The  French  are  an  enthusiastic  people,  and  have  been 
very  fond  of  erecting  monuments  in  public  places  which 
would  remind  them  continually  of  the  glories  of  their 
nation,  the  conquests  of  their  armies,  and  the  achievements 
of  their  great  men.  Triumphal  Arches  and  Columns  of 
Victory  are  almost  numberless  in  France  ;  many  of  them 
are  impressive,  and  some  are  really  very  fine  in  their  archi- 
tecture. Since  the  Porte  St.  Denis  was  (Fig.  1 1 5)  erected,  in 


FRENCH  TRIUMPHAL  ARCHES. 


I65 


FIG.  116. — ARC  DE  L'E"TOILE.     Paris. 

1672,  almost  every  possible  design  has  been  used  for  these 
monuments,  in  one  portion  of  France  or  another,  until, 
finally,  the  Arc  de  1'fitoile  (Fig.  116)  was  built  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  Champs  Elysees,  at  Paris.  This  is  the  noblest 
of  all  modern  triumphal  arches,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
splendid  ornaments  in  a  city  which  is  richly  decorated  with 
architectural  works  of  various  styles  and  periods — from  that 
of  the  fine  Renaissance  example  seen  in  the  west  front  of 
the  Louvre,  built  in  1541,  down  to  the  Arc  de  1'Etoile,  the 
Fontaine  St.  Michel,  and  the  Palais  du  Trocadero  of  our 
own  time. 

The   French  architecture  of  the  present  century  is  in 
truth  a  classic  revival  ;  its  style  has  been  called   the  nto- 


l66  ARCHITECTURE. 

Grec,  or  revived  Greek,  and  the  principal  buildings  of  the 
reign  of  Napoleon  III.  all  show  that  a  study  of  Greek  art 
had  influenced  those  who  designed  these  edifices. 

ENGLAND. 

We  may  say  that  England  has  never  had  an  architecture 
of  its  own,  since  it  has  always  imitated  and  reproduced  the 
orders  which  have  originated  in  other  countries.  The 
Gothic  order  is  more  than  any  other  the  order  of  England, 
and,  in  truth,  of  Great  Britain.  All  English  cathedrals, 
save  one,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  churches,  in 
city  and  country,  are  built  in  this  style  of  architecture. 

It  is  also  true  that  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the 
Roman  Catholics  were  in  power  in  England  and  made  use 
of  Gothic  architecture,  they  built  so  many  churches,  that, 
during  several  later  centuries,  it  might  be  truly  said  that 
England  had  no  church  architecture,  because  so  few  new 
churches  were  required  or  built. 

It  is  so  difficult  to  trace  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
Classical  or  Renaissance  feeling  in  English  architecture  that 
I  shall  leave  it  altogether,  and  passing  the  transition  style 
and  period,  speak  directly  of  the  first  great  architect  of  the 
Renaissance  in  England,  Inigo  Jones,  who  was  born  in  1572 
and  died  in  1653.  He  studied  in  Italy  and  brought  back 
to  his  native  country  a  fondness  for  the  Italian  architecture 
of  that  day.  He  became  the  favorite  court  architect,  and 
there  are  many  important  edifices  in  England  which  were 
built  from  his  designs.  His  most  notable  work  was  the 
palace  of  Whitehall,  though  his  design  was  never  fully  car- 
ried out  in  it  ;  had  it  been,  this  palace  would  have  excelled 
all  others  in  Europe,  either  of  earlier  or  later  date.  Among 
the  churches  designed  by  Inigo  Jones  that  of  St.  Paul's, 
Covent  Garden,  is  interesting  because  it  is  probably  the  first 
important  Protestant  church  erected  in  England  which  still 


SIR   CHRISTOPHER   WREN.  l6/ 

exists.  It  is  small  and  simple,  being  almost  an  exact  repro- 
duction of  the  early  Greek  temples  called  distyle  in  antis, 
such  as  I  described  when  speaking  of  Greek  architecture 
(Fig.  117). 


FIG.  117. — EAST  ELEVATION  OF  ST.  PAUL'S.     Covent  Garden. 

Inigo  Jones  made  many  designs  for  villas  and  private 
residences,  and  perhaps  he  is  more  famous  for  these  works 
than  for  any  others.  Among  them  are  Chiswick  and  Wilton 
House,  and  many  others  of  less  importance. 

After  Jones  came  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  was  the 
architect  of  S'jme  of  the  finest  buildings  in  London.  He 
was  born  in  1632  and  died  in  1723.  The  great  fire,  in 
1666,  when  he  was  thirty-four  years  old,  gave  him  a  splen- 
did opportunity  to  show  his  talents.  Only  three  days  after 
this  fire  he  presented  to  the  king  a  plan  for  rebuilding  the 
city,  which  would  have  made  it  one  of  the  most  convenient 
as  well  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  world. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren  is  most  frequently  mentioned  as 
the  architect  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  This  was  commenced 
nine  years  after  the  great  fire,  and  was  thirty-five  years  in 
building.  St.  Paul's  is  the  largest  and  finest  Protestant 
cathedral  in  the  world,  and  among  all  the  churches  of 
Europe  that  have  been  erected  since  the  revival  of  Classical 
architecture,  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  alone  excels  it  (Fig.  118). 

Although  so  many  years  were  consumed  in  the  building 
of  St.  Paul's,  Sir  Christopher  Wren  lived  to  superintend  it 


i68 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  118. — ST.  PAUL'S,  LONDON.     From  the  West. 

all,  and  had  the  gratification  of  placing  the  topmost  stone 
in  the  lantern  of  this  splendid  monument  to  his  genius. 

The  western  towers  of  Westminster  Abbey  are  said  to 
have  been  built  after  a  design  by  Wren,  but  of  this  there  is 
a  doubt.  Among  his  other  works  in  church  architecture 
are  the  steeple  of  Bow  Church,  London  ;  the  church  of  St. 
Stephen's,  Walbrook  ;  St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street,  and  St. 
James's,  Piccadilly. 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ENGLAND. 


169 


The  royal  palaces  of  Winchester  and  Hampton  were 
designed  by  Wren,  and  many  other  well-known  edifices, 
among  which  is  Greenwich  Hospital.  He  made  some 
signal  failures,  but  it  is  great  praise  to  say,  what  is  un- 
doubtedly true,  that,  though  he  was  a  pioneer  in  the  Renais- 
sance architecture  of  England,  ana  died  a  century  and  a 
half  ago,  no  one  of  his  countrymen  has  surpassed  him,  and 
we  may  well  question  whether  any  other  English  architect 
has  equalled  him. 


FIG.   119. — ST.  GEORGE'S  HALL.     Liverpool. 

Churches,  palaces,  university  buildings,  and  fine  ex- 
amples of  municipal  and  domestic  architecture  are  so 
numerous  in  England  and  other  portions  of  Great  Britain 
that  we  cannot  speak  of  them  in  detail.  The  culmination 
of  the  taste  for  the  imitation  of  Classical  architecture  was 
reached  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and 
among  the  most  notable  edifices  in  that  manner  are  the 
British  Museum,  Fitzwilliam  College,  Cambridge,,  and  St. 
George's  Hall,  Liverpool  (Fig.  119). 


I/O 


ARCHITECTURE. 


A  revival  of  Gothic  Architecture  has  taken  place  in 
England  in  our  own  time.  The  three  most  prominent 
secular  buildings  in  this  style  are  Windsor  Castle,  the 
Houses  of  Parliament,  and  the  New  Museum,  at  Oxford. 
Of  course,  in  the  case  of  Windsor  Castle,  the  work  was  a 
remodelling,  but  the  reparations  were  so  extensive  as  to 
almost  equal  a  rebuilding.  Sir  Jeffry  Wyatville  had  the 
superintendence  of  it,  and  succeeded  in  making  it  appear 


FIG.  120. — WINDSOR  CASTLE. 

like  an  ancient  building  refitted  in  the  nineteenth  century— 
that  is  to  say,  it  combines  modern  luxury  and  convenience 
in  its  interior  with  the  exterior  appearance  of  the  castellated 
fortresses  of  a  more  barbarous  age  (Fig.  120). 

In  the  Houses  of  Parliament  there  was  an  attempt  to 
carry  out,  even  to  the  minutest  detail,  the  Gothic  style  as 
it  existed  in  the  Tudor  age,  when  there  was  an  excess  of 
ornament,  most  elaborate  doorways,  and  the  fan-tracery 
vaultings  were  decorated  with  pendent  ornaments  which 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE   IN   ENGLAND. 


171 


look  like  clusters  of  stalactites.  Sir  Charles  Barry  was  its 
architect.  The  present  school  of  artists  in  England  are 
never  weary  of  abusing  it  ;  they  call  it  a  horror  and  declare 
its  style  to  be  obsolete.  In  fact,  it  is  not  the  success  at 
which  Barry  aimed  ;  but  it  excels  the  other  efforts  to  revive 
the  Gothic  in  this  day,  not  only  in  England,  but  in  all 


FIG.  121. — THE  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT.     London, 


Europe,  and  has  many  points  to  be  admired  in  its  plan  and 
its  detail,  while  the  beauty  of  its  sky-line  must  be  admitted 
by  ajl  (Fig.  121). 

In  the  New  Museum  of  Oxford,  the  Gothic  is  that  of 
Lombardy,  rather  than  the  Early  English.  It  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  result  of  the  teaching  of  Mr.  Ruskin.  It  does 
riot  realize  the  expectations  of  those  who  advocated  this 
manner  of  building,  and  has  proved  a  great  disappointment 
to  the  advanced  theorists  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 


1/2  ARCHITECTURE. 

English  architecture  of  the  present  day  may  be  concisely 
described  by  saying  that  it  is  Gothic  for  churches,  parson- 
age-houses, school-houses,  and  all  edifices  in  which  the 
clergy  are  interested  or  of  which  they  have  the  oversight. 
On  the  other  hand,  palaces,  town-halls,  municipal  build- 
ings, club-houses,  and  such  structures  as  come  within  the 
care  of  the  laity,  are  almost  without  exception  in  the 
Classic  style. 

Neither  of  these  orders  seems  to  be  exactly  suited  to  the 
climate  of  England  or  to  the  wants  of  its  people  ;  therefore, 
neither  would  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  ancients,  who 
taught  that  the  architecture  of  a  nation  should  be  precisely 
adapted  to  its  climate  and  to  the  purposes  for  which  the 
edifices  are  intended.  In  fact,  the  ancients  carried  their 
ideas  of  fitness  so  far  that  one  could  tell  at  a  glance  the 
object  for  which  a  structure  had  been  designed  ;  we  know 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  comply  with  this  law  in  this  day, 
although  it  is  doubtless  in  accord  with  the  true  ideal  of 
what  perfect  architecture  should  be.  At  the  present  day 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  edifices  of  the  Church  and 
clergy  are  far  more  praiseworthy  and  true  architecturally 
than  are  those  for  secular  and  domestic  uses. 


GERMANY. 

I  shall  not  speak  of  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Germany,  but  shall  go  forward  to  the  time  of  the  Revival 
of  Classic  Architecture,  which  dated  about  1825.  During 
the  eighteenth  century  the  discoveries  which  were  made  in 
Greece  were  of  great  interest  to  all  the  world,  and  the  draw- 
ings which  were  made  of  the  temples  and  monuments,  as 
well  as  of  the  lesser  objects  of  art  which  existed  there,  were 
sent  all  over  Europe,  and  had  such  an  effect  upon  the 
different  nations,  that  with  one  accord  they  began  to  adopt 
the  Greek  style  of  architecture,  whenever  any  important 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY.  173 

work  was  to  be  done.  This  effect  was  very  marked  in  Ger- 
many, and  the  German  architects  tried  to  copy  every  detail 
of  Greek  architecture  with  great  exactness. 

When  we  begin  to  speak  of  modern  German  architect- 
ure at  this  point,  we  do  not  omit  anything  important,  for 
the  struggles  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  results  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  were  such,  that  no  great  architectural 
advances  were  attempted  for  a  long  time.  Again,  the 
division  of  Germany  into  many  small  principalities,  and  the 
establishment  of  many  little  courts  so  divided  the  wealth  of 
the  German  people  into  small  portions,  that  no  one  was  rich 
enough  to  undertake  large  buildings.  There  was  no  one 
great  central  city  as  in  France  and  England,  and  no  one 
sovereign  was  rich  enough  to  adorn  his  capital  with  splen- 
did edifices  or  to  be  a  magnificent  patron  of  art  and  artists 
after  the  fashion  of  the  "Grand  Monarque"  in  France. 

Before  taking  up  the  Revival,  however,  I  wish,  for  two 
reasons,  to  give  a  picture  of  the  Brandenburg  Gate,  at 
Berlin.  This  gate  was  erected  between  1784  and  1792.  It 
is  important  because  such  monuments  are  more  rare  in  Ger- 
many than  in  other  European  countries,  especially  of  the 
time  in  which  this  was  built,  and  because  it  is  one  of  the 
best  imitations  of  Greek  art  that  exists  in  any  nation  (Fig.  122). 

It  is  interesting  to  remember  that  when  Napoleon 
entered  Berlin  as  a  conqueror,  after  the  Battle  of  Jena,  he 
sent  the  Car  of  Victory,  which  surmounts  this  gate,  to  Paris, 
as  a  trophy  of  his  prowess.  After  his  abdication  it  was 
returned  to  its  original  position. 

The  effect  of  the  German  revival  of  Greek  art  is  more 
plainly  seen  in  Munich  than  in  any  other  city.  It  is  the 
capital  of  Bavaria,  and  one  of  its  kings,  Louis  I.,  while  he 
was  young  and  had  not  yet  become  king,  resided  at  Rome  ; 
he  was  a  passionate  lover  of  art,  and  he  resolved  that 
when  he  came  to  the  throne  he  would  make  his  capital 
famous  for  beautiful  things.  Above  all,  he  desired  to  imi- 


174 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FIG.  122. — THE  BRANDENBURG  GATE.     Berlin. 

tate  all  that  he  had  most  admired  in  the  countries  he  had 
visited,  and  also  the  art  of  the  ancients  as  he  knew  it  from 
models  and  pictures.  For  this  reason  it  happens  that 
Munich  is  a  collection  of  copies  of  buildings  which  have 
existed  in  other  countries  and  in  past  ages,  and  as  these 
buildings,  which  were  first  made  in  marble  and  stone,  are 
mostly  copied  in  plaster  in  Munich,  much  of  their  beauty  is 
lost  ;  and  since  these  copied  buildings  are  not  used  for  the 
same  purposes  for  which  the  ancient  ones  were  intended, 
the  whole  effect  of  them  is  very  far  from  pleasing  or  satis- 
factory. In  fact,  the  result  is  just  such  as  must  always 
follow  the  imitation  of  a  beautiful  object,  when  no  proper 
regard  is  paid  to  the  use  to  be  made  of  it.  If,  for  example, 
a  fine  copy  of  a  light  and  airy  Swiss  chalet  should  be  made 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  IN  GERMANY. 


175 


in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  placed  on  some  busi- 
ness street  in  one  of  our  cities,  and  used  for  a  bank  build- 
ing, we  could  not  deny  that  it  was  an  exact  copy  of  a  build- 
ing which  is  good  in  its  way  ;  but  it  would  be  so  unsuited 
to  its  position  and  its  uses,  that  the  man  who  built  it  there 
would  be  counted  as  insane  or  foolish.  And  this  is  the 
effect  of  the  modern  architecture  of  Munich  :  it  seems  as 


FIG.  123. — THE  BASILICA  AT  MUNICH. 

if  King  Louis  must  have  been  a  madman  to  expend  so 
much  time  and  money  in  this  absurd  kind  of  imitative 
architecture,  and  yet  it  is  very  interesting  to  visit  this  city 
and  see  these  edifices. 

Of  the  Munich  churches  erected  under  Louis  I.  that  of 
St.  Ludwig  is  in  the  Byzantine  order  ;  the  Aue  Kirche  is  in 
the  pointed  German  Gothic,  and  the  Basilica  is  like  a 
Roman  basilica  of  the  fifth  century.  It  resembles  that  of 


176 


ARCHITECTURE. 


St.  Paul's-without-the-Walls  ;  it  was  begun  in  1835  and 
completed  in  1850.  In  a  vault  beneath  this  basilica  Louis 
and  his  Queen,  Theresa,  are  buried.  The  picture  given 
here  shows  its  extreme  simplicity  ;  its  whole  effect  is  solemn 
and  satisfactory  ;  still  one  must  regret  that  since  it  is  so  fine 
up  to  a  certain  point,  it  should  not  have  been  made  still  finer 
(Fig.  123). 

The  Ruhmeshalle,  or  Hall  of  Fame,  at  Munich,  is  an 
interesting  and  somewhat  unique  edifice.     It   is  a  portico 


FIG.  124. — THE  RUHMESHALLE.     Near  Munich. 

of  marble  with  forty-eight  Doric  columns,  each  twenty-six 
feet  high.  Against  the  walls  are  brackets  holding  busts  of 
celebrated  Germans  who  have  lived  since  1400.  In  front 
of  the  portico  stands  the  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Bavaria. 
She  is  represented  as  a  protectress  with  a  lion  by  her  side  ; 
in  the  right  hand  she  holds  a  sword,  and  a  chaplet  in  the 
left  ;  it  is  sixty-one  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  the  pedestal 
raises  it  twenty-eight  and  a  half  feet  more  ;  inside,  a  stair- 
case leads  up  into  the  head,  where  there  are  seats  for  eight 
persons.  The  view  from  the  top  of  this  statue  is  fine,  and 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE   IN   GERMANY. 


177 


SO  extensive  that  in  a  favorable  atmosphere  the  heights  of 
the  Alps  can  be  discerned.  The  hill  upon  which  the 
Ruhmeshalle  is  built  is  to  the  south  of  Munich,  and  is 
called  the  Theresienhohe.  The  grand  statue  is  intended  to 
be  the  principal  object  of  interest  here,  and  the  portico  is 
made  so  low  as  to  throw  the  figure  out  and  show  it  off  to 
advantage  ;  altogether  it  is  one  of  the  most  successful  archi- 
tectural works  in  Munich  (Fig.  124). 

The  Glyptothek,  or  Sculpture  Gallery,  the  Pinakothek, 
or  Picture  Gallery,  the  Royal  Palace,  the  Public  Library, 


,.__ 


FIG.  125. — THE  MUSEUM.     Berlin. 

the  War  Office,  the  University,  Blind  School,  other  palaces 
and  secular  buildings,  all  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Revival 
in  Germany.  The  Ludwig  Strasse,  which  King  Louis 
fondly  hoped  to  make  one  of  the  most  beautiful  avenues  in 
the  world,  is — with  its  Roman  arch  at  one  end,  and  a  weak 
copy  of  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  at  the  other — a  tiresome, 
meaningless,  architectural  failure. 

The  Museum  of  Berlin  is  a  striking  result  of  the  same 
Revival  of  Classic  architecture,  and  is  far  more  splendid 
than  anything  in  Munich  (Fig.  125). 

In  Dresden  the  most  important  works  in  this  style  are 
the  New  Theatre  and  Picture  Gallery.  The  last  is  almost 


178  ARCHITECTURE. 

an  exact  reproduction  of  the  Pinakothek  of  Munich.  All 
over  Germany  the  effects  of  this  Revival  are  more  or  less 
prominent,  but  I  shall  speak  of  but  one  other  edifice,  the 
Walhalla  (Fig.  126). 

This  is  also  a  Temple  of  Fame,  and  is  situated  about  six 
miles  from  Ratisbon.  It  overlooks  the  River  Danube  from 
a  height  of  more  than  three  hundred  feet.  It  was  begun  in 
1830,  and  was  twelve  years  in  building,  costing  eight  mill- 
ions of  florins.  It  is  of  white  marble,  and  on  the  exterior 


FIG.  126. — THE  WALHALLA. 

is  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens.  The 
interior  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  an  entablature,  which 
supports  fourteen  caryatides,  made  from  colored  marbles. 
These  figures  in  turn  support  a  second  entablature,  on 
which  is  a  frieze  in  eight  compartments,  on  which  is  sculpt- 
ured scenes  representing  the  history  of  Germany  from  its 
early  days  to  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
Along  the  lower  wall  there  are  one  hundred  busts  of  illus- 
trious Germans  who  had  lived  from  the  earliest  days  of  Ger- 
many down  to  those  of  the  poet  Goethe. 


THEATRES   AND   MUSIC   HALLS. 


179 


The  grounds  about  the  Walhalla  are  laid  out  in  walks, 
and  from  them  there  are  fine,  extensive  views.  Taken  by 
itself  there  is  much  to  admire  in  the  Walhalla.  The  sculpt- 
ures arouse  an  enthusiasm  about  Germany,  her  history, 
and  the  men  who  have  helped  to  make  it,  in  spite  of  the 
strange  unfitness  with  which  the  artists  have  mingled 
Grecian  myths  and  German  sagas.  But  aside  from  this 
sort  of  interest  the  whole  thing  seems  incongruous  and 
strangely  unsuited  to  its  position  ;  one  writer  goes  so  far  as 
to  say  of  it  that  "  Minerva,  descending  in  Cheapside  to 
separate  two  quarrelling  cabmen,  could  hardly  be  more  out 
of  place."  And  yet  it  is  true  that  the  Walhalla  is  the  only 
worthy  rival  to  St.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  as  an  example 
of  the  possible  adaptability  of  Greek  or  Roman  Architecture 
to  the  needs  and  uses  of  our  own  days. 

THEATRES  AND   MUSIC   HALLS. 

In  speaking  of  theatres  I  will  first  give  a  list  of  the  most 
important  ones  in  Europe,  as  they  are  given  by  Fergusson 
in  his  "  History  of  Modern  Architecture." 


Depth  from  Curtain 
to  back  of  Boxes. 

Depth  of  Stage. 

feet. 
IOS 

feet. 

77 

San  Carlo,  Naples  

IOO 

7/1 

Carlo  Felice,  Genoa  

Of. 

80 

New  Opera  House,  Paris  

QC 

Q8 

Opera  House,  London  (old)  

OS 

AC. 

Turin  Opera  House  

QO 

no 

Covent  Garden,  London  

8(J 

8q 

St.  Petersburg,  Opera  

87 

IOO 

Academic  de  Musique,  Paris  

8s 

82 

Parma,  Opera  

82 

76 

Fenice,  Venice  

82 

48 

Munich  Theatre  

80 

87 

Madrid  Theatre.  ...           

7Q 

CC 

i8o 


ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Opera  House  of  La  Scala,  at  Milan,  is  generally  said 
to  be  the  finest  of  all  for  seeing  and  hearing  what  goes  on 
upon  the  stage  :  it  was  begun  in  1776  and  finished  two 
years  later.  San  Carlo,  Naples,  holds  the  second  place, 
and  was  first  erected  in  1737,  but  was  almost  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1816,  and  was  afterward  thoroughly  rebuilt. 

The  new  Opera  House  of  Paris  is  interesting  to  us 
because  it  has  been  built  so  recently  and  so  much  written 
and  said  of  it  that  we  are  familiar  with  it.  Any  description 


FIG.  127. — THE  NEW  OPERA  HOUSE.    Paris, 

that  would  do  it  justice  would  occupy  more  space  than  we 
can  afford  for  it,  but  this  cut  (Fig.  127)  gives  an  excellent 
idea  of  its  size  and  exterior  appearance.  It  is  distinguished 
by  great  richness  of  material  and  profusion  of  ornament, 
its  interior  decorations  being  especially  splendid.  It  has 
been  criticised  as  lacking  repose  and  dignity,  but  its  elegance 
and  magnificence  compel  admiration. 

Music  halls  are  only  another  sort  of  theatre,  and  have 
come  into  great  favor  in  recent  days,  especially  in  England. 


IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.  l8l 

The  Albert  Hall,  South  Kensington,  is  the  finest  music  hall 
that  has  been  erected.  It  seats  eight  thousand  people, 
besides  accommodating  an  orchestra  of  two  hundred  and  a 
chorus  of  one  thousand  singers  ;  it  is  one  hundred  and 
thirty-six  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  highest  part  of  the  ceil- 
ing. This  hall  has  some  defects,  but  is  so  far  successful  as 
to  prove  that  a  theatre  or  music  hall  could  be  so  constructed 
as  to  seat  ten  thousand  persons  and  permit  them  to  hear 
the  music  as  distinctly  as  it  is  heard  in  many  halls  where 
only  two  or  three  thousand  can  be  comfortable. 

UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA. 

When  we  remember  that  we  have  been  able  to  give 
some  account  of  architecture  as  it  existed  thousands  of 
years  before  Christ,  and  to  speak  of  the  temples  and 
tombs  of  the  grand  old  nations  who  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  arts  and  civilization  of  the  world — and  then,  when  we 
remember  the  little  time  that  has  passed  since  the  first  roof 
was  raised  in  our  own  land,  we  may  well  be  proud  of  our 
country  as  it  is — and  at  the  same  time  we  know  that  its 
architecture  may  in  truth  be  said  to  be  a  thing  of  the 
future. 

It  is  but  a  few  years,  not  more  than  seventy,  since  any 
building  existed  here  that  could  be  termed  architectural  in 
any  degree.  To  be  sure,  there  were  many  comfortable, 
generous-sized  homes  scattered  up  and  down  the  land,  but 
they  made  no  claim  to  architectural  design,  and  were  not 
such  edifices  as  one  considers  when  speaking  or  writing  of 
architecture. 

The  first  buildings  to  which  much  attention  was  given 
in  the  United  States  were  the  Capitols,  both  State  and 
National,  and  until  recently  they  were  in  what  may  be 
called  a  Classic  style,  because  they  had  porticoes  with  col- 
umns and  certain  other  features  of  ancient  orders  ;  but  when 


182 


ARCHITECTURE. 


the  cella,  as  is  the 
case  in  America,  is 
divided  into  two  or 
more  stories,  with 
rows  of  prosaic  win- 
dows all  around,  and 
chimneys,  and  per- 
haps attics  also  add- 
ed, the  term  Classic 
Architecture  imme- 
diately becomes  ques- 
tionable, and  it  is 
difficult  to  find  a 
name  exactly  suited 
to  the  needs  of  the 
case  ;  for  it  is  still 
true  that  from  a  dis- 
tance, and  in  answer 
to  a  general  glance, 
they  are  nearer  to 
the  Classic  orders 
than  to  anything  else. 
The  National  Cap- 
itol at  Washington, 
which  is  the  principal 
edifice  in  the  United 
States,  was  begun  in 
1793,  when  General 
Washington  laid  the 
foundation-stone  ; 
the  main  portion  was 
completed  in  1830  ; 
two  -wings  and  the 
dome  have  since  been 
added,  and  its  pres- 


IN   THE   UNITED   STATES.  183 

ent  size  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  legislative  build- 
ing in  the  world,  except  the  British  Houses  of  Parliament 
(Fig.  128). 

The  dome,  and  the  splendid  porticoes,  with  the  magnifi- 
cent flights  of  steps  leading  up  to  them,  are  the  fine  feat- 
ures of  the  Capitol.  The  dome  compares  well  with  those 
that  are  famous  in  the  world,  and  taken  all  in  all  the  Wash- 


KIG.  129. — STATE  CAPITOL.     Columbus,  Ohio. 

ington  Capitol  is  more  stately  than  the  Houses  01  Parlia- 
ment, and  is  open  to  as  little  criticism  as  buildings  of  its 
class  in  other  lands. 

Several  of  the  State  Capitols  illustrate  the  manner  of 
building  which  I  described  above.  This  cut  of  the  Capitol 
of  Ohio  is  an  excellent  example  of  it  (Fig.  129). 

In  domestic  architecture,  while  there  has  been  no  style 
so  original  and  absolutely  defined  as  to  be  definitely  called 


184  ARCHITECTURE. 

American,  we  may  roughly  classify  three  periods — the 
Colonial,  the  Middle,  and  the  Modern.  These  terms  have 
no  close  application,  and  you  must  understand  that  I  use 
them  rather  for  convenience  than  because  they  accurately, 
or  even  approximately,  indicate  particular  styles.  The  man- 
sions of  the  Colonial  period  are,  perhaps,  most  easily  recog- 
nized, and  in  some  respects  were  the  frankest  and  most 
independent  class  of  houses  ever  built  in  this  country.  The 
early  settlers  took  whatever  suited  them  from  all  styles,  and 
instead  of  imitating  the  English,  the  Dutch,  or  the  French 
manner  of  building,  mingled  parts  of  all,  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  needs  of  their  climate  and  surroundings. 

This  fine  old  house  (Fig.  130)  shows  the  plain,  homely,  yet 
quaint  style  of  many  of  the  mansions  of  the  Colonial  period. 
It  was  built  near  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  and  occu- 
pied by  Sir  William  Pepperell  until  his  death.  Its  interior, 
with  heavy  wainscoting  of  solid  mahogany,  was  more 
imposing  by  far  than  the  exterior.  The  Van  Rensselaer 
homestead  at  Albany  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  more 
stately  house,  possessing  much  dignity  and  impressive- 
ness. 

The  Middle  period  was  a  time  when  domestic  architect- 
ure, still  without  any  originality  and  losing  much  of  the 
independence  of  the  Colonial,  copied  more  closely  from 
foreign  models.  Some  fine  old  mansions  belong  to  this 
period,  which  covered  the  last  years  of  the  last  century  and 
the  first  half  of  this.  The  celebrated  Cragie  House  at  Cam- 
bridge, occupied  by  the  poet  Longfellow  ;  "  Elmwood," 
the  home  of  James  Russell  Lowell  ;  "  Bedford  House,"  in 
Westchester  County,  New  York,  the  home  of  the  Hon. 
John  Jay,  are  to  be  referred  to  this  period  ;  and  so  is  the 
imposing  "  Old  Morrisania,"  at  Morrisania,  New  York,  the 
old  Morris  mansion  (Fig.  131). 

It  is  modelled  after  a  French  chateau,  and  was  erected 
by  General  Morris  after  his  return  from  France  in  1800.  It 


£? 

£ 

3 


1 86  ARCHITECTURE. 

is  one  of  the  most  striking  among  the  mansions  of  its  time, 
and  both  its  interior  and  exterior  are  highly  interesting. 

These  views  serve  to  illustrate  the  want  of  anything  like 
a  regular  style,  of  which  I  spoke  above  ;  but  they  show 
how  many  different  forces  were  at  work  to  influence  build- 
ing in  the  Modern  period.  This  division  is  meant  to  ex- 
tend to  and  include  the  present  time,  and  so  great  is  the 
diversity  of  styles  now  employed  that  in  a  work  like  this  it 
would  be  idle  to  attempt  anything  like  an  enumeration  of 
them,  and  still  less  to  try  and  determine  their  origin  and 
importance.  I  can  only  give  you  one  example  of  the  hand- 
some and  costly  homes  which  are  being  built  to-day,  and 
leave  you  to  observe  others  as  you  now  see  them  everywhere 
about  the  country  (Fig.  132).  A  modern  writer  on  American 
architecture  claims  that  in  private  dwellings  an  American 
order  is  gradually  being  developed  by  the  changes  made  to 
adapt  foreign  forms  to  our  climate,  and  especially  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  sunlight  here.  All  this  is  so  difficult  to 
define,  however,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  show  it 
clearly  in  the  limits  of  a  book  like  this,  even  if  it  exists. 

What  is  called  the  "  Queen  Anne"  style,  modelled  upon 
the  English  fashion  of  the  time  of  that  monarch,  is  very 
widely  used  in  country  houses  at  the  present  time,  some- 
times in  conjunction  with  the  Colonial,  which  also  exists  as 
an  independent  style.  The  tendency  of  domestic  architect- 
ure is  to  make  everything  quaint  and  picturesque,  though 
this  is  not  so  far  carried  to  extremes  as  was  the  case  a  few 
years  since. 

In  public  buildings  many  splendid  edifices  have  been 
erected  of  late  years.  The  imitation  of  classic  forms  which 
was  formerly  the  fashion,  and  which  is  so  strikingly  ex- 
hibited by  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  is  now  almost 
entirely  laid  aside.  A  lighter,  less  constrained  style,  which 
may  be  called  eclectic — which  means  selecting — because  it 
takes  freely  from  any  and  all  styles  whatever  suits  its  pur- 


1 88  ARCHITECTURE. 

pose,  is  arising  ;  and  as  this  selecting  is  being  every  year 
more  and  more  intelligently  done,  and  as  original  ideas  are 
constantly  being  incorporated  with  those  chosen,  the  pros- 
pects for  architecture  are  more  promising  than  ever  before 
in  this  country.  The  Casino,  at  Newport,  is  a  fine  example 
of  a  modern  building  ;  and  the  still  more  recent  Casino  in 
New  York  shows  a  fine  example  of  the  adapting  of  ideas 
from  Saracenic  architecture  to  American  uses.  The  Capitol 
at  Albany  has  many  fine  features,  but  it  is  the  work  of 
several  designers  who  did  not  harmonize.  Memorial  Hall, 
at  Cambridge,  is  one  of  the  more  striking  of  modern  Ameri- 
can buildings,  but  its  sky-line — that  is,  its  outline  as  seen 
against  the  sky — lacks  simplicity  and  repose. 

The  churches  in  this  country  exhibit  the  widest  variety 
of  style.  Trinity  Church  in  New  York  was  the  first  Gothic 
church  erected  in  America,  and  Trinity  Church  in  Boston,  one 
of  the  latest  churches  of  importance,  is  also  Gothic,  though  of 
the  variety  called  Norman  Gothic,  and  considerably  varied. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  of  New  York,  and  many 
others  of  less  magnitude,  might  be  cited  as  a  proof  that 
American  architecture  is  advancing,  and  that  we  may  speak 
hopefully  of  its  future. 

Railroad  depots  and  school-houses  of  certain  types  are 
among  the  most  distinctive  and  characteristic  American 
edifices.  The  first,  especially,  are  being  constructed  more 
nearly  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  principle  of  suiting 
the  structure  to  its  uses  than  are  any  other  buildings  that 
are  worthy  to  be  considered  architecturally.  Art  museums 
and  public  libraries,  too,  now  form  an  important  feature 
in  both  town  and  country,  and,  in  short,  the  beginning  of 
American  architecture,  for  that  is  all  that  can  be  claimed 
for  what  as  yet  exists,  is  such  as  would  be  the  natural  out- 
come of  a  nation  such  as  ours — varied,  restless,  bold,  ugly, 
original,  and  progressive.  All  these  terms  can  be  applied 
to  American  art,  but  in  and  through  it  all  there  is  a  prom- 


ARCHITECTURE. 

ise  of  something  more.  As  greater  age  will  bring  repose 
and  dignity  of  bearing  to  our  people,  so  our  Fine  Arts  will 
take  on  the  best  of  our  characteristics  ;  as  we  outgrow  our 
national  crudities  the  change  will  be  shown  in  our  architect- 
ure, and  we  may  well  anticipate  that  in  the  future  we  shall 
command  the  consideration  and  assume  the  same  impor- 
tance in  these  regards  that  our  excellence  in  the  Useful  Arts 
has  already  won  for  us  in  all  the  world. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 

Abacus. — The  uppermost  portion  of  the  capital  of  a 
column,  upon  which  rested  the  weight  above. 

Aisle. — The  lateral  divisions  of  a  church  ;  more  properly, 
the  side  subdivisions. 

Amphitheatre. — A  round  or  oval  theatre. 

Apse. — The  semi-circular  or  polygonal  termination  to  the 
choir  or  aisles  of  a  church. 

Arcade. — A  series  of  arches  supported  on  piers  or  col- 
umns. 

Arch. — A  construction  of  wedge-shaped  blocks  of  stone 
or  of  bricks,  of  curved  outline,  spanning  an  open  space. 

Architrave. — (i)  The  lowest  division  of  the  entablature, 
in  Classic  architecture  resting  on  the  abacus.  (2)  The 
moulding  used  to  ornament  the  margin  of  an  opening. 

Base. — The  foot  of  a  column  or  wall. 

Basilica. — Originally  a  Roman  hall  of  justice  ;  afterward 
an  early  Christian  church. 

Buttress. — A  projection  built  from  a  wall  for  strength. 

Byzantine. —  The  Christian  architecture  of  the  Eastern 
church,  sometimes  called  the  round  arched  ;  named  from 
Byzantium  (Constantinople). 

Capital. — The  head  of  a  column  or  pilaster. 
Caryatid. — A  statue  of  a  woman  used  as  a  column. 
Cathedral.—  A  church  containing  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 


IQ2  ARCHITECTURE. 

Cella. — That  part  of  the  temple  within  the  walls. 

Chamfer. — A  slope  or  bevel  formed  by  cutting  off  the 
edge  of  an  angle. 

Column. — A  pillar  or  post,  round  or  polygonal ;  the  term 
includes  the  base,  shaft,  and  capital. 

Composite  Order. — See  Order. 

Corinthian  Order. — See  Order. 

Cornice. — The  horizontal  projection  crowning  a  building 
or  some  portion  of  a  building.  Each  classic  order  had  its 
peculiar  cornice. 

Crypt.  — A  vault  beneath  a  building. 

Dome. — A  cupola  or  spherical  convex  roof. 
Doric  Order. — See  Order. 

Entablature. — In  classic  styles  all  the  structure  above 
the  columns  except  the  gable.  The  entablature  had  three 
members,  the  architrave  or  epistyle,  the  frieze,  and  the 
cornice. 

Entasis. — The  swelling  of  a  column  near  the  middle  to 
counteract  the  appearance  of  concavity  caused  by  an  op- 
tical delusion. 

Epistyle. — See  Architrave. 

Facade. — The  exterior  face  of  a  building. 
Frieze. — The  middle  member  of  an  entablature. 


Gable. — The  triangular-shaped  wall  supporting  the  end 
of  a  roof. 

Gargoyle. — A  projecting  water-spout  carved  in  stone  or 
metal. 

Hexastyle. — A  portico  having  six  columns  in  front. 


GLOSSARY   OF   TECHNICAL   TERMS.  193 

Intercolumniation. — The  clear  space  between  two  col- 
umns. 

Ionic  Order. — See  Order. 

Metope. — The  space  between  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze 
of  the  Doric  Order. 

Minaret.  —A  slender  tower  with  balconies  from  which 
Mohammedan  hours  of  prayer  are  called. 

Mosaic. — Ornamental  work  made  by  cementing  together 
small  pieces  of  glass,  stone,  or  metal  in  given  designs. 

Nave. — The  central  aisle  of  a  church  ;  the  western  part 
of  the  church  occupied  by  the  congregation. 

Obelisk. — A  quadrangular  monolith  terminating  in  a 
pyramid. 

Order. — An  entire  column  with  its  appropriate  entab- 
lature. There  are  usually  said  to  be  five  orders  :  Tuscan, 
Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  ;  the  first  and  last 
are,  however,  only  varieties  of  the  Doric  and  Corinthian 
developed  by  the  Romans.  The  peculiarities  of  the  orders 
have  been  described  in  the  body  of  the  book.  When  more 
than  one  order  was  used  in  a  building,  the  heavier  and 
plainer,  the  Doric  and  Tuscan,  are  placed  beneath  the 
others. 

Pediment.— In  classic  architecture  what  the  gable  (which 
see)  was  in  later  styles. 

Peristyle. — A  court  surrounded  by  a  row  of  columns  ; 
also  the  colonnade  itself  surrounding  such  a  space. 

Pier. — A  solid  wall  built  to  support  a  weight. 

Pilaster. — A  square  column,  generally  attached  to  the  wall. 

Pillar. — See  Column. 

Plinth. — A  square  member  forming  the  lower  division  of 
the  base  of  a  column. 


194  ARCHITECTURE. 

Polychrome.—  Many-colored  ;  applied  to  the  staining  of 
walls  or  architectural  ornaments. 

Quatrefoil. — A  four-leaved  ornament  or  opening. 

Shaft. — The  middle  portion  of  a  column,  between  base 
and  capital. 

Story. — The  portion  of  a  building  between  one  floor  and 
the  next. 

Triglyph. — An  ornament  upon  the  Doric  frieze  consist- 
ing of  three  vertical,  angular  channels  separated  by  narrow, 
flat  spaces. 


INDEX. 


A  BACUS,  52 

"*"^     Abd-er-Rahman,  Caliph,  126 
Acropolis,  61,  62 
Adan,  the,  126 
Age  of  Legend  (Greece),  46 
Agrippa,  76 
Albert     Hall,     South     Kensington, 

181 
Alexander  the  Great  517;  and  Thais, 

34 

Alexandria,  obelisks  at,  15 
Alhambra  ;    129  ;  described   by   De 

Amicis,  129,  130 
American    architecture  ;     youth   of, 

181  ;  domestic,  183, 184  ;  periods 

of,  184  ;  modern  writer  on,  186  ; 

promise   of,   188,    igo  (and  see 

United  States) 
Amytis,  30 

Ancient  or  heathen  art,  2 
Ancient    architecture  ;    87  ;   change 

from,  to  Gothic,  79  ;  adapted  to 

climate  and  use,  172 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  153 
Angers,  church  at,  103 
Antae.      See  pilasters 
Arabs,  128 
Arcades  ,  combined  from  Greek  and 

Etruscan  art,  76  ;  of  Ducal  Pal- 
ace, Venice,  142 
Arc  de  I'fitoile  (Paris),  165 


Arch  ;  knowledge  of  principle  of, 
73  ;  found  in  Etruscan  ruins,  73  ; 
oldest  in  Europe  (of  Cloaca  Max- 
ima), 74  ;  the  Roman  triumphal, 
81  ;  of?Titus,  82  ;  of  Septimius 
Severus,  82 ;  of  Beneventum, 
82,  83  ;  Roman,  83  ;  (Gothic)  un- 
ending use  of,  95  ;  French  use  of 
pointed,  96  ;  early  use  of  pointed, 
123  ;  examples  of,  in  Court  of 
the  Lions,  130  ;  examples  of,  in 
Ducal  Palace,  142  ;  triumphal,  in 
France,  164 

Architecture  in  general,  I 

Architrave,  52,  56 

Art ;  as  effected  by  Athenian  influ- 
ence, 67  ;  (Gothic)  religious  use 
of,  103  ;  (Gothic)  revival  of,  io<?  • 
(Gothic)  applied  to  civic  edifices, 
104  ;  of  Renaissance,  and  Filippo 
Brunelleschi,  134-138  ;  (Italian) 
145  ;  (Italian)  as  a  means  of  re- 
ligion, 154 

Artaxerxes  Ochus,  palace  of,  38 

Artemisia,  68,  69 

Assouan.    See  Syene 

Assyria  ;  ruins  of,  21  ;  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions found  in,  21  ;  religious 
influence  in,  22  ;  bas-reliefs  of, 
22  ;  palaces  of,  described,  23-26  ; 
Hercules  of,  24 ;  excelling  in 


196 


INDEX. 


architects    and    designers,   28  ; 
obelisk  of,  28,  29 
Assyrian  pillars,  shaft  of,  12 
Assyrians,  Persians  taught  by,  34 
Astronomy,  and  Birs-i-Nimrud,  32 
Athena  ;    Parthenos,      62  ;    Polias  ; 
statue    of,  62,   64  ;  Promachos, 
62  (and  see  Minerva) 
Athens  ;   Choragic     Monument    of 
Lysicrates  at,  57  ;  Erechtheium 
at,  59  ;  Acropolis  of,  61  ;  munic- 
ipal buildings  of,  67 
Attic  base,  55 
Attic-Ionic   style,    the   Erechtheium 

an  example  of,  65 
Aue-Kirche  (Munich),  175 
Augustines,  church  of  the  (Paris),  160 
Augustus  (Emperor),  boast  of,  80 
Autharis,  90 
Avenue  of  Sphinxes,  13 

T)  ABYLON  ;  inscriptions  of,  21  ; 
hanging  gardens  of,  29  ;  temples 
of,  30  ;  temple  of  Belus  at,  31  ; 
prophecies  concerning,  33 

Babylonians  ;  knowledge  of,  as  build- 
ers, 30  ;  Persians  taught  by,  34 

Bacchus,  monument  of  Lysicrates 
dedicated  to,  68 

Baptistery  at  Florence,  90 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  171 

Base;  Grecian  Doric,  n  ;  decora- 
tions on,  at  Persepolis,  41  ;  At- 
tic, 55  ;  Ionic,  55  ;  Tuscan  order 
of,  76  ;  Composite,  76 

Basilica  ;  of  St.  Paul's  (Rome),  88  ; 
of  the  Escurial,  146,  148  ;  near 
St.  Mark's,  114  ;  at  Munich,  175 

Basilicas ;  of  Rome,  78  ;  of  Trajan  and 
Maxentius,  79 ;  columns  of,  79  ; 
given  up  to  Christians,  87 

Bas-reliefs,  of  Assyria,  22 

Baths  ;  of  Agrippa,  76  ;  of  Diocle- 
tian, 80  ;  of  Caracalla,  So 


Battiste  Monegro,  statues  of    Escu» 

rial  by,  149 

Bavaria,  bronze  statue  of,  176 
Bedford  House,  184 
Belus,  temple  of  (Babylon),  31 
Belzoni,  and  tomb  of  Seti  I.,  7 
Beneventum,  arch  of,  82,  83 
Beni- Hassan,  tombs  at,  5 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  153 
Bergamo,  porch  at,  112 
Berlin  ;  Brandenburg  Gate  at,  173 ; 

New  Museum  at,  177 
Bianca,  wife   of   Francesco   Sforza, 

144 

Birs-i-Nimrud,  32 

Bishop  of  Paris,  St.  Germain,  173 

Boodroom,  name  of  Halicarnassus 
changed  to,  70 

Boulevards  (Paris),  164 

Bourse  (Lyons),  162 

Bow  Church  (London),  steeple  of, 
168 

Bramante  ;  140  ;  great  court  (Milan),, 
designed  by,  144 

Brandenburg  Gate  (Berlin),  173 

British  Museum,  169 

Broletto  at  Como,  112 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo  ;  134  ;  and  story 
of  Columbus  and  the  egg,  138  ; 
statue  of  (Florence),  138  ;  archi- 
tect of  Pitti  Palace,  138,  154 

Byzantine  order,  the  ;  geographical 
boundaries  of,  93  ;  in  Southern 
Italy,  in,  115  ;  and  Constanti- 
nople, 117;  the  dome  the  chief 
characteristic  of,  117  ;  and  the 
Greek  Church,  117  ;  decline  of, 
117  ;  exterior  and  interior  of,  119 

Byzantine-Romanesque,  115,  122 


,  works  of,  134 
^-^     Cairo  ;  mosque  at,  123  ;  mosque 

near,  125 
Caliph  Abd-er-Rahman,  126 


iNDEX. 


I97 


Callimachus  (sculptor),  and  Corin- 
vhian  capital,  58,  59 

Cambridge,  Fitzwilliam  College  at, 
169 

Campaniles,  112,  114  (and  see  Clock- 
tower). 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  pointed 
arches,  124 

Capital  ;  definition  of,  II  ;  varieties 
of  in  Great  Hall  of  Karnak,  40  ; 
Grecian,  52  ;  Ionic,  55  ;  of  Corin- 
thian order,  57,  58  ;  of  Roman 
Composite  order,  75  ;  variety  of 
in  mosque  of  Cordova,  128  ;  in 
Ducal  Palace,  142 

Capitol  ;  State  and  National,  181  ; 
at  Washington,  182,  183  ;  of 
Ohio,  183  ;  at  Albany,  188 

Car  of  Victory,  and  Napoleon,  173 

Cardinal  Richelieu,  154 

Caria,  King  of,  69 

Caryatides  ;  59  ;  of  the  "Walhalla,  178 

Casino  ;  at  Newport,  188  ;  at  New 
York,  188 

Castle  of  Wartburg,  109,  no 

Cathedral  ;  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  123  ; 
at  Florence,  136,  138  ;  at  Jaen, 
146  ;  at  Valladolid,  146  ;  of  St. 
Paul's  London,  167  ;  at  New 
York,  188 

Cecilia  Metella,  tomb  of,  84 

Cella,  51 

Central  Park,  New  York,  obelisk 
in,  16 

Chambord,  chateau  of,  154,  161 

Champs  Elysees,  Arc  de  1'Etoile  in 
(Paris),  165 

Charlemagne,  123 

Charles  I.  of  England  and  classic 
art,  134 

Charles  V.  of  Spain,  abdication  of ,  146 

Charles  IX.  of  France,  161 

Chehl  Minar,  38  (and  see  Great  Hall 
of  Audience) 


Chenonceaux,  chateau  of,  154 

Cheops.    See  Pyramids 

Chiswick  House,  Inigo  Jones  design- 
er of,  167 

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
(Athens),  57 

Choragus,  67 

Christians  ;  art  of,  in  Sicily,  116  ; 
under  Constantine,  87  ;  rise  and 
progress  of  architecture  of,  87  ; 
influence  of  belief  of,  93 

Church  ;  of  San  Miniato,  115  ;  of 
Mother  of  God  (Constantino- 
ple), 123  ;  of  St.  Vitale  (Raven- 
na), 123  ;  of  the  Escurial,  155  ; 
of  the  Sarbonne,  156;  of  St. 
Genevieve,  158  (and  see  Panthe- 
on); of  the  Invalides  (Paris),  156- 
158  ;  of  the  Trinity  (Paris),  160  ; 
of  the  Madeleine  (Paris),  160  ;  of 
the  Augustines  (Paris),  160 ;  of 
St.  Paul's  (Covent  Garden),  166  ; 
of  St.  Stephen's  (Walbrook),  168; 
of  St.  Ludwig  (Munich),  175 

Churches  ;  early  forms  of,  in  Italy, 
89  ;  (Gothic)  interiors  of,  98, 
rood-screens  of,  107  ;  of  Bur- 
gos, 105  ;  of  Toledo,  105  ;  of 
Malaga  and  Segovia,  146 

Churriguera,  Josef  de,  146 

Churrigueresque  style,  146 

Civic  order,  Broletto  at  Como,  112 

Classic  style,  revival  of,  in  Germany, 
172 

Classic  literature  of  Rome,  influence 
of,  153 

Cleopatra's  Needles,  15 

Cloaca  Maxima  (Rome),  74 

Clock-tower ;  near  St.  Mark's 
(Venice),  114  (and  see  Campa- 
nile) 

Cologne,  great  cathedral  of,  10 

Colonial  period  (America),  184 

Colosseum,  80 


198 


INDEX. 


Colossi,  13  (and  see  Rameses  the 
Great) 

Columbaria,  84,  85 

Columns ;  n  ;  of  Hypostyle  Hall 
(Karnak),  n  ;  Assyrian  knowl- 
edge of,  28  ;  of  Great  Hall  of 
Audience,  39,  40 ;  Persian  de- 
velopment of,  42  ;  Grecian,  52  ; 
Ionic,  56  ;  of  temple  of  Diana 
(Ephesus),  60 ;  of  green  jasper 
at  St.  Sophia,  61  ;  Tuscan  order 
of  76  ;  of  basilicas,  79  ;  of  St. 
Paul's  ( Rome),  89  ;  of  St.  Sophia, 
120  ;  of  mosque  of  Cordova,  127, 
128  ;  of  the  Alhambra,  129,  130  ; 
in  courtyard  of  the  Escurial, 
149  ;  of  the  Pantheon,  158  ;  of 
Victory,  in  France,  164  ;  of  por- 
tico of  Ruhmeshalle,  176  (and  see 
"  Groves  of  PiP.ars  "  and  Pillars) 

Composite  order,  75 

Constantine,  Emperor  ;  2  ;  Egypt  in 
time  of,  19  ;  arch  of,  81  ;  Chris- 
tians under,  87,  117 

Constantinople  ;  St.  Sophia  at,  61  ; 
and  Byzantine  order,  117 

Convent  of  Escurial,  150,  151 

Cordova,  mosque  at,  126 

Corinthian  capital,  58,  59 

Corinthian  order  ;  52  ;  57  ;  capital 
of,  57,  58  ;  shown  in  the  Made- 
leine (Paris),  160 

Cornice,  53,  76 

Count  of  Thuringia,  no 

Court  of  the  Lions,  129,  130 

Cragie  House  (Cambridge),  184 

Crown,  iron,  of  Theodolinda,  92 

Crypt  of  the  Invalides,  158 

Custom  House  at  Rouen,  162 

Cyrus,  tomb  of,  42,  43 


T~\ARIUS  ;  palace  of,  38  ;  tomb  of, 

43 
Dark  Ages,  134 


De  Amicis  ;  quoted  concerning  the 
mosque  of  Cordova,  126  ;  quoted 
concerning  the  Escurial,  148-152 

Diana,  60 

Diocletian,  palace  of  (Spalatro),  86 

Distyle  in  Antis,  51 

Doge's  Palace  (Venice),  114  (and  see 
Ducal  Palace) 

Dome  ;  chief  characteristic  of  Byzan- 
tine architecture,  117  ;  119;  of 
the  cathedral  of  Florence,  138  ; 
of  St.  Peter's  (Rome),  138  ;  of 
the  Invalides,  157  ;  of  the  Pan- 
theon (Paris),  158  ;  of  the  Capi- 
tol (Washington),  183 

Domes   of   St.  Mark's  (Venice),  114 

Domestic  architecture  ;  Egyptian 
study  of,  1 6  ;  of  Greece,  70 ;  of 
Rome,  85  ;  Gothic,  109  ;  of  Spain, 
152  ;  of  France,  162  ;  examples 
of,  in  Great  Britain,  169  ;  of 
America,  183,  184 

Doric  order  ;  imitated  old  Egyptian 
tombs,  7  ;  characteristics  of,  52- 
54  ;  traced  back,  54  ;  and  Ionic 
order,  compared,  57  ;  Propylaea 
and  Parthenon  as  examples  of, 
64 

Dresden,  new  theatre  and  picture 
gallery  of,  177 

Ducal  Palace  (Venice),  and  John  Rus- 
kin,  142  (and  see  Doge  s  Palace) 

""PASTERNS,"   the,  123   (and  see 
*"•*     Saracens) 

Ebed,  the,  126 

Ecbatana,  palace  of,  34 

Echinus,  52 

Eclectic  style,  188 

Edfou,  temple  of,  17 
'  Early  Spanish  "  architecture,  106 

Egypt,  tombs  and  ruins  of,  2—20  ;  re- 
ligion of,  influencing  art,  8  ;  pil- 
lars of,  II  ;  hieroglyphics  on  pil- 


INDEX. 


IQ9 


lars  of,  12  ;  irregular  plans  of 
palaces  and  temples  of,  13  ; 
obelisks  of,  removed,  15  ;  an- 
cient houses  of,  16 ;  domestic 
architecture  of,  16  ;  under  the 
Ptolemies,  17  ;  decline  of  arts  of, 
in  later  days,  19 ;  in  time  of 
Constantine  (Emperor),  19  ;  pres- 
ent knowledge  of  history  of,  20 

Elmwood,  184 

England  ;  imitation  of  other  styles 
of  architecture  in,  166  ;  Gothic 
order  in,  166  ;  examples  of  vari- 
ous architectural  styles  in,  169  ; 
art  of,  at  the  present  time, 
172  ;  revival  of  Gothic  art  in, 
170 

Entablature  ;  definition  of,  54 ;  of 
Walhalla,  178 

Entasis,  67 

Ephesus  ;  temple  of  Diana  at,  60 ; 
desolation  at,  61 

Epistyle,  7 

Erechtheium  (Athens)  ;  59  ;  and  Athe- 
na Polias,  62  ;  burial-place  of 
Erechtheus,  64  ;  founded  by 
Erechtheus,  64  ;  example  of  At- 
tic-Ionic style,  65 

Erechtheus,  founder  of  the  Erech- 
theium, 65 

Escurial  (near  Madrid),  146-152  ; 
combination  forming,  146  ;  dome 
of  basilica  of,  146  ;  palace  of, 
147 ;  De  Amicis's  description 
of,  148-152  ;  statutes  of,  by  Bat- 
tiste  Monegro,  149  ;  room  of 
Philip  II.  in,  149  ;  basilica  of, 
149 ;  church  of,  149  ;  courtyard 
of  the  kings  of,  149  ;  convent  of, 
150,  151 

Etruscans  ;  71  ;  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres of,  72 

Euphrates,  29 

Exchange  at  Marseilles,  162 


of  Ducal  Palace,  142 
"  Farnese  Bull,"  81 

"Farnese  Hercules,"  81 

Ferdinanu  and  Isabella,  reign  of,  145 

Fergusson  and  Gothic  architecture, 
93 

Filippo  Brunelleschi  and  art  of  Re- 
naissance, 134-138 

Fine  Art  Gallery,  near  baths  of 
Caracalla,  81 

Fitzwilliam  College  (Cambridge),  169 

Flavian  Amphitheatre,  80 

Florence,  cathedral  of,  134 

Fontaine  St.  Michel,  165 

Fontainebleau,  palace  of,  154 

Fortress,  the  Acropolis  as  a,  62 

Fortresses  of  ancient  Greece,  48 

Forum  Boarium,  82 

France  ;  and  revival  of  classic  art, 
134 ;  and  Gothic  architecture, 
153  ;  sovereigns  of,  as  influ- 
encing architecture,  154  ; change 
in  style  in,  from  Gothic  to  Re- 
naissance, 156  ;  style  of  Henry 
IV.  in,  161;  time  of  classic  revi- 
val, 162  ;  domestic  architecture 
of,  162  ;  Neo-Grec  style  in,  165, 
166  ;  modern,  165,  166 

Francesco  Sforza,  144 

Francis  I.,  of  France  ;  and  introduc- 
tion of  Italian  art,  154  ;  Louvre 
rebuilt  by,  160 

Frieze  ;  definition  of,  53  ;  of  Ionic 
order,  56  ;  of  Tuscan  order,  76  ; 
of  Walhalla,  178 

/^ARGOYLE,  98 

^-*     Garibald,  King  of  Bavaria,  90 
Gateway  Huldah  of   temple   at  Je- 
rusalem, 44 

Gateways  ;  in  walls  of  Nineveh,  21  ; 
in  walls  of  Babylon,  29  ;  golden, 
iron,  and  brazen,  of  palace  of 
Diocletian,  86 


20O 


INDEX. 


Germany  ;  and  revival  of  classic  art, 
134  ;  imitation  of  details  of  Greek 
architecture  in,  173  ;  modern 
architecture  of,  173 

Ghizeh,  pyramids  of,  3 

Gibbon  (historian)  and  St.  Sophia, 
122 

Giotto's  campanile,  112 

Girard  College  (Philadelphia),  186 

Glaber,  Rodulphe,  93 

Glyptothek  at  Munich,  177 

•Gothic  order;  Fergusson's  location  of, 
93  ;  extension  and  origin  of,  93  ; 
invention  of  interior  aisles  in, 
98  ;  design  of,  in  ornament,  99  ; 
painted  glass  applied  to,  100 ; 
Spanish  variation  of,  105  ;  modi- 
fication of  in  Northern  Italy, 
in  ;  combined  with  Eastern 
decoration  in  Venetian  archi- 
tecture, 114  ;  last  distinct  order, 
133  ;  in  France,  153  ,  union  of, 
with  Italian  design  in  France, 
154  ;  in  England,  166 ;  in  the 
Tudor  age,  170  ;  and  Houses  of 
Parliament,  171 

Goths,  temple  of  Diana  burned  by,  61 

Goujon,  Jean,  and  the  Louvre,  160 

Goya,  149 

Gra^co-Roman  style,  146 

Grand  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  no 

' '  Grand  Monarque. "  See  Louis  XIV. 

"  Grands  Hommes"  Pantheon  dedi- 
cated to,  158 

Great  Hall  of  Audience  ;  plan  of,  41  ; 
theories  concerning,  42 

Great  Hall  of  Baths  of  Diocletian,  80 

Great  Palace  near  Persepolis,  36-38 

Grecian  Doric  order ;  shaft  of,  12  ; 
domestic  architecture  of,  70 

Greece  ;  art  of,  as  compared  with  that 
of  Egypt,    20 ;  prehistoric  days 
of,  47 ;   origin  of  architecture  of,   : 
48  ;  coloring  of  marbles  in,  65  ; 


skill  in  deceiving  the  eye,  in 
architecture  of,  67  ;  theatres  of, 
68  ;  origin  of  drama  in,  68  ;  ef- 
fect in  Germany  of  discoveries 
in,  173 

Greenwich  Hospital,  169 

Gregory  I.  (Pope),  92 

"  Groves  of  Pillars,"  44 

TT  ADRIAN  ;  77  ;  tomb  of  (castle 
t*  of  St.  Angelo),  84 

Halicarnassus  ;  mausoleum  at,  68  ; 
in  possession  of  Knights  of  St. 
John,  70  ;  name  of,  changed  to 
Boodroom,  70  ;  sculptures  of,  in 
British  Museum,  70 

Hall  of  Fame,  176  (and  see  Ruhmes- 
halle) 

Hall  of  One  Hundred  Columns,  38 

Hall  of  Xerxes,  38-41  (and  see  Great 
Hall  of  Audience) 

Hampton,  palace  of  (designed  by 
Wren),  169 

Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon  ;  29  ; 
interior  structure  of,  29,  30  ;  and 
Semiramis,  30  ;  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 30 

Henry  of  Ofterdingen,  no 

"  Hercules  of  Assyria,"  24 

Hermann,  Count  of  Thuringia, 
no 

Herodotus,  "  Father  of  History,"  47 

Herostratus,  60 

Hesham,  126 

Hexastyle,  52 

Homer,  "  Iliad  "  and  "  Odyssey"  of, 

47 

"  House  of  the  Virgin,"  62  (and  see 
Parthenon) 

Houses  of  Parliament  (London) ; 
170  ;  and  Gothic  revision,  171 

Hypostyle  Hall  (Karnak)  ;  n  ;  com- 
pared with  St.  Peter's  (Rome), 
140 


INDEX. 


201 


T  BN-TOULOUN,  mosque  built  by, 
123 

"  Iliad,"  knowledge  of  Grecian  his- 
tory from,  47 

Inigo  Jones.      See  Jones,  Inigo 

Inscriptions,  Arabic,  130 

Invalides,  church  of  the,  156-158 

Ionic  capital,  55,  56 

Ionic  order  ;  52-54  ;  traced  back,  55  ; 
capital  of,  55,  56  ;  architrave  of, 
56  ;  columns  of,  56  ;  compared 
with  Doric  order,  57  ;  combined 
with  Doric  in  interior  of  the  \ 
Parthenon,  64 

Isabella  and  Ferdinand,  reign  of,  145 

Isis,  temple  of,  18 

Ismail  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt,  16 

Italy  ;  architecture  of  ;  87  ;  Byzantine 
order  in  southern  part  of,  in  ; 
best  days  of  architecture  in,  144 

JAEN  (Granada);  cathedral  of,  146 
Jay,  Hon.  John,  home  of,    184 
Jerusalem,  temple  of  ;  Gateway  Hul- 

dah  of,  44  ;  design   of,  proving 

Roman  influence,  45 
Jones,     Inigo    (architect) ;    166 ;   de- 
signer of  Chiswick  House,  167  ; 

designer  of  Wilton    House,  167 
Jordan,  ruins  beyond,  44 
Josef  de  Churriguera,  146 
Josephus,    proving  time  of  building 

temple  of  Jerusalem,  45 
Judea  ;  art-history  of,  44  ;  ruins  of,  at 

Jerusalem,    Baalbec,     Palmyra, 

and  Petra,  44 
Justinian  (Emperor),  and  St.  Sophia, 

119 

TT'AITBEY,  mosque  at,  125 

Karnak,  palace-temple  of  ;  8- 
12  ;  Hypostyle  Hall  in,  10 
Khedive  of  Egypt,  Ismail  Pasha,  16 
Khorsabad,  palace  of,  26 


T    A   SCALA,  Milan,  180 
Lateran,  palace  of,  81 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  153 

Library  of  St.  Mark's  (Venice),  142 

Liverpool,  St.  George's  Hall  at,  169 

Livy,  works  of,  134 

Longfellow,  home  of.  184 

Louis  I.  (Bavaria),  and  revival  of 
Greek  art,  173,  175 

Louis  XIII.  (France),  and  classic  ar- 
chitecture, 161 

Louis  XIV.  (France),  and  revival  of 
classic  architecture,  162 

Louis  XV.  (France),  158 

Louis  Philippe,  162 

Louvre  (Paris),  160 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  home  of, 
184 

Ludwig  Strasse  (Munich),  architect- 
ural failure,  177 

Luther  and  castle  of  Wartburg,  in 

Lyons,  new  Bourse  in,  162 

Lysicrates,  monument  of,  67 

TV/T  ADELEINE,  church  of  the,  160 
Malaga,  churches  of,  146 

Mans,  monastery  at,  103 

Mansard,  Jules  Hardouin,  156 

Marburg,  no 

Marcus  Scaurus,  80 

Marseilles,  exchange  at,  162 

Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus,  68 

Mausolus,  69,  70 

Maxentius,  basilica  of,  79 

Mecca,  123 

Medinet  Habou,  house  at,  16 

Mehemet  Ali,  15 

Memorial  Hall  (Cambridge),  188 

Memphis,  ruins  of,  used  in  new 
buildings,  7 

Metope,  53 

Michael  Angelo,  and  church  of  S. 
Maria  Degli  Angeli,  80  ;  and 
St.  Peter's  (Rome),  138-140 


2O2 


INDEX. 


Middle  Ages  ;  Italian  towers  of,  in  ; 
prosperity  of  architecture  of 
(Venice).  114 

Middle  period  in  America,  184 

Milan,  La  Scala  of,  180 

Minarets  of  mosques,  125 

Minerva.     See  Athena 

Modern  architecture  ;  imitative,  133  ; 
since  Renaissance,  133  ;  in  Italy, 
134  ;  three  eras  of,  in  Spain, 
146  ;  in  Germany,  173  ;  diver- 
sity of  style  of,  in  United  States, 
186 

Mohammed,  123 

Mokattam  Mountains,  4 

Monks  of  Middle  Ages,  102 

Monolith  of  the  Gateway  Huldah,  44 

Monuments  in  France,  164 

Monza,  cathedral  of,  92 

Moresco  or  Moorish  order,  106,  123 

Morris,  General,  and  "  Old  Morri- 
sania,"  184 

Morrisania,  184 

Mosaics  of  St.  Sophia,  120 

Mosque  ;  at  Cairo,  123  ;  minarets  of 
same,  125  ;  near  Cairo,  125 

Mosque  of  Cordova,  126  ;  De  Amicis, 
concerning,  126  ;  naves  of,  127  ; 
marbles  of,  127  ;  columns  of, 
127,  128 

Mosque  of  Kaitbey,  125 

Mother  of  God,  church  of  (Constan- 
tinople), 123 

Muezzin,  the  call  of,  125,  126 

Munich ;  modern  architecture  of, 
*73»  *74  I  church  of  St.  Ludwig 
at,  175  ;  Ruhmeshalle  at,  176  ; 
glyptothek  of,  177 

Museum  ;  of  Berlin,  177  ;  at  Oxford, 
170,  171 

Music  halls,  180 

Mutules,  65 

Mycenae,  48 

Mythology,  47 


A^APOLEON  I.  ;  and  pyramids, 
•  3;  tomb  of,  158;  inscription 
from  will  of,  158  ;  Car  of  Vic- 
tory, trophy  of,  173 

Napoleon  III.,  162,  166 

Nebuchadnezzar  ;  and  "  Hanging 
Gardens,"  30  ;  and  Birs-i-Nim- 
rud,  32 

Neo-Byzantine  order,  117 

Neo-Grec  order,  166 

Nero  (Emperor),  temple  of  Diana 
robbed  by,  61 

New  museum  at  Oxford,  170,  171 

New  theatre,  Dresden,  177 

Newton,  discoverer  of  sculptures  at 
Halicarnassus,  70 

New  World,  discovery  of,  145 

New  York,  Trinity  Church  in, 
188 

Nile,  near  Thebes,  14 

Nineveh  ;  walls  of,  21  ;  gateways 
of,  21  ;  ornamentation  of  gate- 
ways of,  23  ;  palaces  of,  27 

Norman  Conquest,  116 

Northern  Spain,  Arabs  of,  128 

OBELISK  ;  now  in  Paris,  13  ;  at 
Alexandria.  15  ;  Cleopatra's 
Needles,  15;  expressing  worship, 
16  ;  in  Central  Park,  New  York. 
16  ,  the  Assyrian,  28,  29 

"  Odyssey,"  knowledge  of  Grecian 
history  from,  47 

"Old  Morrisania,"  184 

Opera  House  (Paris),  180 

Order.  See  Gothic,  Moresco  or 
Moorish,  Civil,  Neo-Byzantine, 
Neo-Grec,  Romanesque,  Byzan- 
tine, Saracenic 

Order  of  the  Garter,  symbol  of, 
89 

Oriental  art  ;  characteristics  of,  59  ; 
and  the  caryatid,  59 

Oxford,  new  museum  at,  170 


INDEX. 


203 


1DAINTED  glass  and  Gothic  archi- 

•*•       lecture,  100 

Palace  ;  of  Khorsabad,  27  ;  of  Ecba- 
tana,  34  ;  of  Susa,  34  ;  of  Artax- 
erxes  Ochus,  38  ;  of  Darius,  38  ; 
of  Xerxes,  38  ;  of  Diocletian  at 
Spalatro,  86  ;  of  the  Escurial, 
147,  149  ;  of  Versailles,  162  ;  of 
Whitehall,  166  ;  of  Hampton, 
169  ;  of  Winchester,  169 

Palaces  ;  of  Assyria,  23-26  ;  of  Nine- 
veh, 27 

Palace-temples,  Egyptian,  8 

Palais  du  Trocadero,  165 

Pantheon  (Rome)  ;  76-78  ;  rotunda 
and  porch  of,  76  ;  preservation 
of,  77  ;  inscription  on  portico  of, 
77  ;  burial-place  of  Raphael  and 
Annibale  Caracci,  78 

Pantheon  (Paris),  158  ;  and  see 
church  of  St.  Genevieve 

Parapet  of  Ducal  Palace,  Venice,  142 

Paris  ;  rebuilt,  162  ;  the  boulevards 
of,  164  ;  new  opera  house  of,  180 

Parthenon  (Athens);  53,  54  ;  built  of 
Pentelic  marble,  64 ;  of  Doric 
order  of  architecture,  64  ;  erected 
under  care  of  Phidias,  64  ;  sculpt- 
ures of,  64 

Paul  Silentiarius  and  description  of 
St.  Sophia,  120 

Pediment,  54 

Pepperell,  Sir  William,  184 

Pericles  at  Athens,  61 

Peristyle,  52 

Persepolis  ;  great  palace  near,  36- 
38  ;  spring  residence  of  Persian 
kings,  42 

Persia;  inscriptions  found  in,  21; 
palaces  of,  34 ;  taught  by  As- 
syria and  Babylonia,  34  ;  plat- 
forms of,  36  :  regularity  of  archi- 
tecture of,  43  ;  faults  of  architect- 
ure of,  44 


Peruzzi,   140 

Pharaoh,    and  tombs   at   Beni-Has- 

san,  6 

Phidias  ;   and    Athena    Promachos, 

62  ;    Parthenon    erected    under 

care  of,  64  ;   sculptures  executed 

by,  64 

Philse  ;   temple    on    island    of,    18  ; 

buildings  at,  19 

Philip   II.  of  Spain  ;  and  decline  of 
Spanish  art,  145  ;  and  the  Escu- 
rial, 146  ;  cell  of,  in  the  Escurial, 
149  ;  chair  of,  150 
Piazza,  of  St.  Mark  (Venice),  142 
Picture  Gallery,  Dresden,  177 
Piers,  Egyptian,  n 
Pilasters,  52  ;  127  ;  (and  see  Antae) 
Pillar  of  the  Gateway  Huldah,  44 
Pillars  ;  of  Great  Hall  of  Audience, 
38-41  ;  of  Doric  order,  52  ;  of  San 
Miniato,  116  ;  of  Ducal  Palace, 
142  ;  (and  see  Columns) 
Pinacotica.near  Baths  of  Caracalla,8l 
Pinakothek  (Dresden),  177 
Pitti  Palace,  gallery  of,  138,  154 
Platerisco,  146 
Platforms,  Persian,  36 
Pope,  the,  and  Italian  art,  154 
Porches  of  Northern  Italy,  112 
P.orte  St.  Denis  (Paris),  164 
Portico  ;  of   basilica  of   St.  Mark's, 
115  ;  of  the  Court  of  Lions,  130 ; 
the  Ruhmeshalle,  176  ;  of  Capi- 
tol at  Washington,  183 
Praxiteles  and  temple  of  Diana,  60, 

61 

Priene,  temple  of  Athena  at,  55 
Priests,  patrons  of  art  during  Middle 

Ages,  102 
Primaticcio,  153 
Prince  Louis  of  Thuringia,  no 
Promachos  (see  Athena),  62 
Propylaea  ;  Assyrian,   24  ;  of  Acrop- 
olis, 62  :  64 


204 


INDEX. 


Proto-Doric  order,  7 

Ptolemies,  17 

Public  Library  of  Munich,  177 

Pyramids  of  Cheops  ;  2  ;  size  of,  3  ; 

interior  of,  4 
Pyramids    of    Ghizeh  ;     3  ;     tombs 

near,  5 

/^VUATREFOIL,  142 
f£     ' '  Queen  Anne  style  "  in  Amer- 
ica, 1 86 

•D  AMESES   the   Great.      See  Co- 

1V     lossi. 

Raphael,  140 

Ratisbon,  the  Walhalla  near,  178 

Reformation,  the,  133 

Religion  ;  influencing  Egyptian  art, 
8  ;  a  factor  in  national  architect- 
ure, 9 

Renaissance  ;  104  ;  134  ;  buildings 
erected  in  Italy  during,  142  ;  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  145 ;  and 
Michael  Angelo,  145  ;  and  Ra- 
phael, 145  ;  in  England,  166 

Richelieu  (cardinal),  154 

"  Ritter  George,"  in 

Roman  theatre,  first,  80 

Romanesque  order,  87 

Romanesque  and  Byzantine  orders 
mingled,  122 

Rome  ;  ruled  by  Etruscans,  71  ;  ac- 
queducts  and  bridges  of,  74  ; 
earliest  works  of,  directed  by 
Etruscans,  74  ;  growth  of  Com- 
posite order  in,  75  ;  temples  of, 
76  ;  interior  architecture  of,  76  ; 
Pantheon  of,  76-78  ;  basilicas 
of,  78;  decline  of  art  in,  80; 
theatres  of,  80;  triumphal  arch- 
es of,  81  ;  tombs  of,  83-86  ; 
domestic  architecture  of,  85  ;  in- 
fluence of  classic  literature  in, 
133 ;  St.  Peter's  at,  138-140 


Rood-screens,  107 

Rose  windows,  102 

Rouen,  custom  house  at,  162 

Royal  Palace  at  Munich,  177 

Ruhmeshalle  (Munich)  ;  columns  of, 

176  ;  statue  in  front  of,  176 
Ruins  ;   Assyrian,    21  ;  Judean,   44  ; 

of  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus, 

60 
Ruskin,  John  ;    and    Ducal    Palace 

(Venice),  142 ;  teaching  of,   171 

CT.  BRIDE'S  (Fleet  Street),  168 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary.no 
St.  Eustache,  church  of  (Paris),  154 
St.  Genevieve,  church  of  (Paris),  158 
St.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  169 
St.  Germain  ;  103  ;  173 
St.  James's  (Piccadilly),  church  of,  168 
St.  John  Lateran,  89 
St.  Ludwig,  church  of  (Munich),  175 
St.  Mark's  (Venice),  114  ;  piazza,  of, 

114  ;  portico  of,  115 
St.  Mark's,  Library  of  (Venice),  114 
St.  Paul's,  cathedral  of  (London),  167 
St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  166,   167 
St.    Paul's   without  the  Walls  ;   88  ; 
bronze    gates    of.  89 ;    columns 
of,  89 

St.  Peter's  (Rome)  ;  as  compared 
with  palace-temple,  8  ;  dome  and 
cross  of,  138  ;  and  Michael  An- 
gelo, 138—140 ;  begun  and  fin- 
ished, 138-140 ;  criticised,  140 
St.  Quentin,  battle  of,  146 
St.  Sophia,  church  of  (Constanti- 
nople) ;  green  jasper  columns  of, 
61  ;  117;  and  Justinian,  119; 
Gibbon's  description  of,  119 ; 
Paul  Silentiarius's  description 
of,  1 20 

St.  Vitaie,  church  of  (Ravenna),  123 
San  Carlo,  opera  house  of  (Naples), 
180 


INDEX. 


205 


San    Miniato,  church   of  (Florence), 

115,  116 
San  Paolo  fuori  della  Mura.     See  St. 

Paul's  without  the  Walls 
Sansovino,  142 
Sta.  Maria  del  Fiore.     See  cathedral 

of  Florence 
Sta.  Maria  Degli  Angeli,  church  of, 

and  Michael  Angelo,  80 
Saraceni.     See  "  the  Easterns  " 
Saracenic     architecture,    123,    124 ; 

principal  homes  of,  126  ;  study 

of,  132 
Sargon,  26 
Scaurus,  Marcus,  80 
Schliemann,  48 

Sculpture  Gallery  of  Munich,  177 
Sculptures  ;  executed  by  Phidias,  64 ; 

Gothic  use  of,  in  decoration,  107 
Segovia,  churches  of,  146 
Semiramis   (Queen),  and  "Hanging 

Gardens,"  30 
Sennacherib,  26 
Septimius  Severus  ;  and  Pantheon, 

77  ;  arch  of,  82  ;  wife  of,  82 
Sepulchres,  85  (and  see  Tombs) 
Seti  I.,  tomb  of,  7 
Sforza,  Francesco,  144 
Shaft  of  Tuscan  column,  76 
Shrines  of  Babylon,  riches  of,  31,  32 
Shushan,  42 
Sicilian      architecture,      remarkable 

style  of,  116 

Sicily,  Christian  art  of,  116 
Soufflot  (architect),  158 
Spain  ;  and  Gothic  art,  104,  105  ;  and 

Moorish  architecture,  123  ;    and 

classic  art,    134  ;   from  time  of 

fall   of   Granada,   145  ;    modern 

architecture   of,    146  ;    domestic 

architecture  of,  152  ;    people  of, 

as  artists,  and  Fergusson,  152, 

153 
Sphinx,  13 


Spires,  98 

Staircase  of  temple  of  Diana  (Ephe- 

sus),  60 

Staircases  of  Persepolis,  36 
Statue  of  Bavaria,  176 
Statues  of  the  Escurial,  149,  150 
Street  of  the  Tripods,  68 
Suphis.     See  Cheops 
Susa,  palace  of,  34 
Sutri,  72 

Syene,  granite  of,  in  pyramids,  4 
Symbol  of  Order  of  the  Garter,  89 
Symbolism  of  Gothic  ornament,  107, 

108 

TACITUS,  134 

Tapestries  of  Escurial,  149 
Temple  ;  of  Karnak,  13  ;  of  Luxor, 
13  ;  of  Denderah,  17  ;  of  PhilaR, 
17  ;  influenced  by  Egypt,  in 
building,  17  ;  of  Birs-i-Nimrud, 
32  ;  of  Jerusalem,  44,  45  ;  ear- 
liest style  of,  in  Greece,  48  ;  of 
Athena  at  Priene,  55  ;  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus,  60,  and  Praxiteles, 

60,  61,     and     Theodosius       I. 
(Emperor),  61,  burned  by  Goths, 

61,  robbed    by  Nero,   61  ;    the 
Erechtheium  as  a,  65  ;  of  Vesta, 
89 

Temple  Court  of  palace  of  Khorsa- 

bad,  27 
Temples  ;  of  Babylon,  30  ;  of  Rome, 

76  ;   in  the  Court  of  the  Lions, 

130 

Tenia,  52 
Thais,  34 
Theatres  ;  of  Rome,  80  ;  list  of  most 

important,  179 
Thebes;    "Tombs   of   the    Kings" 

near,  7  ;   grandeur  of  ruins  of, 

7,8 

Theodolinda  ;  90  ;  iron  crown  of,  92 
Theodosius  I.,  and  temple  of  Diana, 


206 


INDEX. 


61  ;  and  St.  Paul's  without  the 

Walls,  88 

Theresa,  Queen  of  Louis   I.   of  Ba- 
varia, 176 
Theresienhohe,  177 
Thermae,  80 
Titus,  arch  of,  82 
Tomb  ;  of  Seti  L,  7  ;  of  Cyrus,  42, 

43  ;  of  Darius,  43  ;  of  Mausolus, 

69,  70  ;  of  Hadrian,  84 
Tombs  ;    at    Beni-Hassan,   5  ;    near 

Pyramids,    5  ;    "of  the  kings," 

near  Thebes,    7  ;    Persian,  42  ; 

exploration     of     Persian,     43 ; 

Etruscan,  73  ;  of  Rome,  83-86 
Toscanelli,  138 
Tower ;  of    Birs-i-Nimrud,   32 ;    of 

Giotto,  112 
Towers ;  of  Babylonish  temples,  31  ; 

in  Gothic  architecture,  98  ;    of 

Italy,  in  Middle  Ages,  ill  ;  of 

Westminster  Abbey,    168    (and 

see  Campanile) 
Trajan  ;  basilica  of,  79  ;  and  arch  of 

Beneventum,  82 
Triglyphs,  53 
Trinity  Church  ;  Paris,  160  ;  Boston, 

188  ;  New  York,  188 
Tripod,  68 
Trojan  war,  47 
Troy,  Schliemann's   discoveries  at, 

48 

Tudor  age,  Gothic  style  in,  170 
Tumuli,  73 
Tuscan  order,  75,  76 


T  TLA,  the,  126 

^  United  States  ;  capitols  of,. 
181  ;  first  buildings  of,  181  ; 
classic  architecture  and,  182 ; 
cella  divided  in,  182 ;  charac- 
teristic types  of  edifices  in,  188 

University  of  Munich,  177 

WALENTINIAN   II.,  88 

*  Valladolid,  cathedral  of,  146 
Van  Rensselaer  homestead,  184 
Vatican  compared  with  palace-tem- 
ple, 8 

Venice,  architecture  of,  114 
Versailles,  palace  of,  162 
Vesta,  temple  of,  89 
Vignon,  160 
Villa  Borghese,  palace  of,  81 

T17-ALHALLA,  178,  179 

*  *      Walls  ;  of  Nineveh,   21  ;  of 

Babylon,  29 

War  office  (Munich),  177 
Wartburg,  castle  on,  109 
Washington  (U.  S.),  national  cap- 

itol  at,  182 
Washington,   George,   and  national 

capitol,  182 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  167,  168,  169, 
Wyatville,  Sir  Jeffrey,  170 

•yERXES,  37,  38 
7AHRA,  129 


UCSB  LIBRARY 


1  8  1993 
ART  LIBRAR 


iiiiiiiiililllllllllH 

A     000  606  517     1 


